Sports Psychology

Sport Psychology Athletes in today’s society are bigger, stronger, and faster than ever before but they still share the same goals as their predecessors, climb to the top of their sport and be crowned champion. Unlike in previous generations, the â€Å"game† is no longer just a game, it’s a booming business. Major League Baseball alone boasts a three point seven billion dollar a year industry.In this new generation of big business, how do athletes cope with the pressure of grossing fifteen million dollars a year and performing in front of twenty thousand screaming fans packed into Madison Square Garden or seventy-two thousand fanatical â€Å"Cheese Heads† at Lambeau Field? One of those answers is with sport psychology. But one answer leads us down a convoluted path with many other unanswered questions. This paper will define sport psychology and identify where it come from. It will also discuss the objectives of sport psychology and how are they applied.Th e final topic will describe sport psychologists do. According to the sport psychology program at San Diego State University, sport psychology can be defined as â€Å"the study of people and their behavior in sport and exercise contexts†, or â€Å"the effect of sport itself on human behavior†, or â€Å"a field of study in which the principles of psychology are applied in a sports setting. †(SDSU, web para. 1) How did we arrive at this definition? The history of sport psychology can be divided into five periods dating as early as 1895 to the present.The first period is from 1895-1920. Norman Triplett, a psychology professor at Indiana University, was the first researcher to confirm that bicyclists sometimes rode faster when they raced in groups or pairs than when they rode alone. Following Triplett’s work in 1899 is E. W. Scripture of Yale. Scripture believed that a certain set of personality traits could be fostered through participation in sports. In 1903 , G. T. W Patrick wrote an article for the â€Å"American Journal of Psychology† that stated attending sporting events allowed fans to release pent-up emotions.We wrap up the early era with Coleman Griffith. Griffith began informal research of basketball and football players in 1918. His research led to the second period of sport psychology named in his honor, the Griffith era. The Griffith era of sport psychology begins in 1921 and runs into 1938. Coleman Griffith is considered the grandfather of North American Sport Psychology due to his contributions during this period. Between 1921 and 1931, Griffith published over twenty five research articles relating to sport psychology.Griffith was also appointed as the director of research in athletics at the University of Illinois in 1925. The focus of the department was psychomotor skills, learning, and personality. The largest accomplishments of Griffith come in 1926 and 1928 when he wrote Psychology of Coaching and Psychology of Athletics respectively. We close the Griffith era when Phillip Wrigley hires him as sport psychologist for the Chicago Cubs in 1938. The third and fourth periods of sport psychology are by far the slowest developing time for the new science.This portion begins in 1938 when Franklin Henry of the University of California, Berkeley established the psychology of physical activity graduate program. The forties and fifties were rather stagnant but we arrive in Rome, Italy for the first World Congress of Sport Psychology in 1965. Following the World Congress gathering is the first annual North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity (NASPSPA) conference in 1967. NASPSPA closed the door on the fourth period in 1974 when they published the proceedings of their conference for the first time.Our current period in sport psychology is considered the contemporary period. The first event of the contemporary period was the establishment of the â€Å"Journal of Sport Psyc hology†, which is now known as â€Å"Sport and Exercise Psychology†. One of the most monumental steps was during the 1984 Olympic Games when American television emphasized the role that sport psychology played in premier athletic training. The US Olympic Team hired its first full-time sport psychologist in 1985. The trend continued in 1986 as The Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology (AAASP) is established.The AAASP began to publish their official journal in 1989. Finally, the AAASP began to award the â€Å"certified consultant† designation in 1991. Now that we know what sport psychology is and where it began, we can attempt to determine the objectives of sport psychology. The first basic objective in sport psychology is to learn how psychological factors shape a person’s physical performance. The second objective is to comprehend how participation in athletics affects a person’s psychological health, development, and well-bein g. With those two objectives in mind, how do we actually apply them?First off, there are a number of reasons for sport psychology, and for every reason, there is a distinct group of people who are using sport psychology to their advantage. With that said, let’s move on to those reasons. The first reason for sport psychology is probably the most obvious, the pursuit of excellence by athletes. Simply put, sport psychology plays a vital role in how athletes train. Next is the enormous salaries paid in professional sports today. A 24 year old college graduate being drafted by a professional sports team is suddenly a very wealthy person overnight.Most people need assistance in transitioning to that kind of lifestyle. Our third reason is the undisputable fact that the recognition gained by athletic competition is huge. Most children cannot tell you that the current Vice President of the United Sates is Dick Cheney but could tell you who Alex Rodriguez or Ron James are, who they pla y for, and what position they play. The final reason for sports psychology is what is known as the fitness movement. The phenomena can be dated back to the fifties where fitness was beginning to be sold as a way of life.It is safe to say that fitness is a way of life. The television can confirm this as it is filled with ads that include sports drinks and home exercise equipment. What groups is sport psychology for? We can start with our children when we let them play tee ball and pee wee football and work all the way through senior citizens taking aerobics classes at the nearest community center. We can also include our novice intramural softball leagues on the weekends all the way to our elite professionals and Olympians competing on the world stage.Applying sport psychology techniques to most of the different groups in sports is very basic. The most popular group for sport psychologists are coaches, teachers, fitness trainers, and elite athletes. Coaches, teachers, and fitness tra iners receive basic reinforcement and motivation training to help them get their teams to perform. Our elite athletes however have a full scope of services offered to them. Most professionally owned sports teams have a team of three to four sport psychologists assisting the organization. It can be considered a type of insurance policy on their investment.Let’s discuss how this â€Å"insurance policy† work for the pros. Sports psychologists handle many issues depending on the sub area of sport psychology in which they certified. The two basic areas are clinical sport psychology and educational sport psychology. The less traveled path of these is the clinical approach. These specialists are licensed psychologists and primarily deal with severe emotional disorders. Examples of these are athletes with eating disorders and substance abuse. The most common area of sport psychology is the educational side.Educational sport psychologists have been trained with a sport science background. This type of psychology is considered the mental coach approach. The goal of these psychologists is to assist coaches and athletes with shortcomings in their confidence level, dealing with performance anxiety, and improving concentration skills. Educational sport psychologists are typically employed by professional sports teams. These psychologists are not certified in clinical psychology and usually refer athletes with more sever disorders to a clinical psychologist.With sports and exercise such a big part of today’s society, there comes a need for a field dedicated to the psychological aspects of sports and exercise. Sport psychology has grown from an accidental study of cyclists to a science that can identify what athlete performs better and why. This paper has defined what sport psychology is and where it started. I have also covered the objectives of sport psychology and how they are applied. Finally, I covered what sport psychologists do. The next time you s it down to watch a professional sports contest you can ask yourself if this athlete is mentally prepared to perform today.WORKS SITED American Board of Sport Psychology. http://www. americanboardofsportpsychology. org/ Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology. http://www. aaasponline. org/ Martin, Scott. http://www. coe. unt. edu/martin/KINE5121/5121intr. htm University of North Texas. 2004 SDSU sport psychology http://www-rohan. sdsu. edu/~psyched/index. html Street and Smith. â€Å"For a handful of sport psychologists serving teams, a mind is a terrible thing to overlook†. Street and Smith’s Sports Business Journal. http://www. mwiop. com/perf_consult/articles/sport_a. html December 1999.

How Important Is Breakfast In A Child’s School Life?

The behavior and performance of children inside the classroom are undoubtedly affected by different set of factors. In a set of children, it cannot be denied that differences in conduct and grades are to be expected from the children. Some of the children yield better grades and are more sociable as compared to the others. The difference in the demeanor of children while they are attending school can be traced to the different kinds of environment to which they are exposed and to the dissimilarity in raising methods of parents.However, one such factor that is often overlooked is the consumption of breakfast of a child before he or she is sent to school by his or her parents. There is much study to show that having breakfast largely affects the performance of children inside the classroom. Studies show that breakfast, the first meal taken, is the most important meal of all. â€Å"Breakfast intakes of food energy, calcium, riboflavin, phosphorus and magnesiun with a higher percentage of breakfast food energy from fat and saturated fat and lower percentage of food energy from carbohydrates† (Gordon, et.al. , 1995). As aptly stated in one article, the British Dietetic Association mentioned that this statement could be backed up by evidence. â€Å"Breakfast can be a very good source of vitamins. Many processed cereals are fortified with vitamins and minerals which people can find it difficult to get elsewhere if they are just having two meals a day† (â€Å"Breakfast Is The Most Important Meal†). For growing children, it is most imperative that they get used to having breakfast every morning. As correctly stated,Children are continuously growing and changing every day, and a nutritious breakfast provides the sugar, starch, protein, and fat – elements necessary for children to ensure a sustained release of energy and a delayed onset of hunger. Eating breakfast also improves the intake of fiber, vitamins, and minerals, especially iron and vi tamin C. Studies have shown that eating breakfast gives children the nutritional boost they need to get the learning process going – to stimulate learning – and there are other benefits as well (Booth).Most people do not realize this reality and so there are people who skip this meal usually and don’t take the repercussions seriously. Some children even go to school without taking breakfast due to a lot of reasons. Some fail to have breakfast in the morning because they woke up late and the most common reason is that the kids just refuse to eat in the morning before going to school. What parents do not realize is that skipping breakfast could greatly affect the way children behave and perform inside the classroom.Thinking of ways to make children have breakfast before heading for school is worth the while if only for the advantages it could afford in the betterment of a child’s performance in school. Naturally, after waking up in the morning, the child wo uld need nourishment. As pointed out by Booth, â€Å"when the physical need of hunger is taken care of, these children can focus on learning and perform better in school, not only educationally but socially and emotionally as well. † LITERATURE REVIEW Truly, the concept and importance of breakfast have already been embarked upon by a number of studies worldwide.However, it was deemed it necessary to further said topics by determining how children in school are affected by their failure to have this first meal before attending class. Based on observation and comparison of different children I have dealt with, it appears that a big difference clearly appears between those who regularly take breakfast before going to school and those who do not. This topic is relevant as it would provide the parents a clearer picture of the importance of making their children eat breakfast.So also, this study will help other educators consider the possibility of imparting to children the importa nce of breakfast, and make them understand why behavior and performance of children in their class differ. Due to the relevance of the topic presented by the paper, different sources must be visited and analyzed. The study on the importance of having breakfast to school children is not a simple investigation or survey, but ultimately, it can be used as a guide for parents in order to help their children to become better in school.So also, it can be a tool for teachers in order to monitor the behavior of their students. The observations performed inside the classroom have inspired the formulation of this paper because clearly, those who fail to take breakfast before going to class are having a hard time focusing on the lessons and dealing with other children in the classroom. Such failure does not only affect their grades but also the way they socialize with their fellow classmates.In investigating on the effect of breakfast on the performance and demeanor of children inside the clas sroom, different forms of resources have been visited and thoroughly analyzed. This study, while based on observation of school children and on interviews of said children, cannot be complete without going through different researches conducted by experts on the matter. As proper nutrition is important to growing children, experts have conducted research as to how lack of proper nutrition hampers the growth and development of children.In addition to this, books which have been written as regards the importance of breakfast would also have to be perused in order to come up with a clearer presentation of the issue at hand. For some time now, doctors and researches have been writing on the importance of having breakfast before one starts his or her day. As stated above, breakfast is more commonly referred to as the most important meal of the day. If indeed breakfast is considered as that important, then all the more should it be accorded magnitude when it comes to growing children.Duri ng their growing years, they are the ones who are more in need of vitamins and nourishment. In school, as have been observed, children are just starting to learn the basics and so proper nutrition should be provided to them so that they are equipped with much energy that they would need for learning inside the classroom. For instance, Booth has uncovered that: Children who ate breakfast (when compared to those who rarely ate breakfast): †¢ Learn better (and have improved memory) †¢ Achieve more (better math and reading scores – almost a whole letter grade higher; and better standardized test scores)†¢ Participate in the class more often (and have increased attentiveness in the classroom and less anxiety) †¢ Behave better (less disciplinary actions or incidences and are more socially developed) †¢ Attend school more often (less absences and tardiness) †¢ Visit the school nurse less often †¢ Hence, scholarly books and articles as regards prope r nutrition of children were used for this paper. So also, materials tracing a child’s ability to concentrate and absorb learning in school to having breakfast would be used in order to strengthen the position of this study.This paper shall also be based on personal finding and observation that have been conducted. Being around children makes it easier to determine how having breakfast could affect the children’s behavior inside the classroom. Every change in attitude or performance in academic activities could be used as a tool in furthering the objectives of this paper. Through day to day observation, it can be seen how each child responds to the lack of consumption of breakfast before going to school. Going through voluminous studies and scholarly articles would be helpful in preparation for this paper.However, it was also considered that inputting own observations as regards the matter at hand would develop the paper. The observations that were conducted would then be related to the articles of other writers and experts and thus, a presentation of a clearer picture of school children and the need for having breakfast before heading to school could be made. Lastly, an interview of school children was conducted in order to ascertain how many of them actually take breakfast before going to school, why some children failed to have breakfast, and the presence of breakfast in the morning or lack thereof affects the child’s mood during the day.By conducting said interview, it was easier to interpret the materials that were gathered and read as regards the matter. Taken as a whole, all the books, materials, scholarly journals, and internet articles that have been gathered helped in completing the study of how the presence of breakfast largely affects the behavior and performance of children is school. All of these, coupled with observations and interviews made possible the creation of this study. The observations on the behavior of the childre n inside the classroom were clearly noted down.The students who were active in class and those who were silent and aloof were taken note of. Later on, during the interview, it was asked whether or not they had breakfast before they went to school. It was then related to the collected information from the articles and books that were used for the study. SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS The objective of the paper is to establish and confirm the effect of having breakfast in the performance and behavior of children inside the classroom. The foundation of the discussion would be the importance of providing growing children with proper diet and nutrition.Although providing children with adequate and proper nutrition would be mentioned throughout the paper, it must be borne in mind that the focus of this paper is breakfast as the source of said nutrition. Hence, other sources of nutrition would not be thoroughly discussed in this study. In addition, it must be pointed out that the subjects of this p aper are growing children and thus, the effect of breakfast on adults, although it would be mentioned during the discussion, would not be the main focus of the study.The study shall be restricted to effect of breakfast on growing children. The discussion of this paper shall be limited to the effect of breakfast on children who are already attending school. Although proper nutrition is essential to every child in general, the point of discussion of this study would be limited to children who are enrolled in school. The essence of this study is to impart the message that taking the first meal of the day could actually help children improve their grades in school and to help them make better their attitude and behavior inside the classroom.Hence, only the performance of children in school would be the main area of discussion. As the observation was done inside the classroom, how the children behaved in school were noted in this study. How the children would deal with family members out side of the school or how these children would respond to other variables will not be thoroughly discussed in the paper. Although clearly, the lack of proper nutrition would affect a child’s behavior, only such behavior as exemplified inside the classroom would be discussed in this study.Lastly, it is necessary to point out that the statements made in this study is restricted to the children that have been interviewed and were actually observed. Although a statements in general terms affecting children shall be made in the paper, it must be understood that the basis of this research is limited to the children that have participated with this study. So also, the possibility that other factors may have affected the demeanor of the children should be entertained.As mentioned in the earlier part of the paper, there are also other factors which affect the behavior of children, some of which are the different environment to which they are exposed to and the difference in raising te chniques and methods of their parents. Thus, in understanding the findings of this study, it must be borne in mind that the lack or presence of breakfast in a child’s morning is only one of the many factors affecting a child in school. This study is restricted to that factor, and all other factors affecting a child’s performance inside the classroom will not be touched upon.

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One of leading causes of death Alzheimer's disease in men - Essay Example This type of disease can also be described as memory loss or forgetfulness and it is very common among the elderly people. This condition is responsible for causing more deaths among the males in the US. Schaie & Willis (2002) suggest that dementia of the mind can be attributed to old age and this is seen as a normal development in the life of the human beings. According to Thomas (1996), research has shown that the majority of adults who have what he calls Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) are not aware of their condition and the number of people affected is greater than imagined. Park (2010) posits to the effect that â€Å"More than 5 million Americans currently suffer from Alzheimer's disease, a number that will grow to 13.4 million by 2050. There is no cure.† The other problem related to this disease is that there is no definite test for Alzheimer and the therapies that exist include drugs and lifestyle behaviors which include keeping the mind busy through games and puzzles as well as trying to enrich social relationships with other people. However, these techniques can only can â€Å"only delay, not stop, the onset of memory loss, confusion and cognitive decline that generally extend over a period of several years,† Park (2010). ... According to CDC (2011) the only remedies available include therapies that are offered by voluntary organizations in the US. These specifically provide home based care to the people affected by this disease and at times they provide training programs such as exercise as well as performing other activities like reading and watching television since they help to keep their mind active. The people who offer voluntary work to the affected people also teach them different lifestyle activities that can help them to live health lives. These include aspects such as good diet which can significantly improve their health. The people affected by this disease can also get medication as prescribed by their physicians. The government and other healthcare agencies have spent a lot of money through assisting people affected by this disease. â€Å"The cost of health care for people with Alzheimer’s disease and other dementia was estimated to be 200 billion dollars in 2012, including 140 billi on dollars in costs to Medicare and Medicaid and is expected to reach 1.1 trillion dollars in 2050,† (Tejada-Vera, 2013, p. 1). More resources are being spent in dealing with this problem hence the need for holistic measures that can address the problem once and for all. These groups spend quite a lot of money procuring drugs that can be used by the patients. Part of the money is also used for educational programs that are meant to create awareness among the Americans about the dangers of this disease. It has been realized that a lot of people often ignore the existence of this epidemic which is responsible for causing a lot of premature deaths in the US. The other important aspect about

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Gertrudes as Shakespeare Essay Example for Free

Gertrudes as Shakespeare Essay Where a twenty-first century audience would express sympathy for Hamlets loss and would understand his hesitation in taking vengeance, an Elizabethan audience would not sympathise towards him for avenging his fathers death, and would question why Hamlet is showing inaction. As Dori Ripley suggests, The church advocated Gods vengeance, while the state demanded justice through Gods chosen representative(s) (Ripley, 1), meaning it would be Hamlets duty to avenge his fathers death in the eyes of the Elizabethan Church, for Gods cause. Therefore, this would certainly contribute to Hamlets turmoil, with the added pressure to exact Gods vengeance on the wicked (Ripley, 2), and become King of Denmark. However, in the eighteenth century, Thomas Hanmer drew attention to Hamlets delay in avenging his fathers death, suggesting that Had Hamlet gone naturally to work there would have been an end of our play, meaning Shakespeares play would not have been as dramatic for his intended audience of his era. Ernest Jones suggests that Hamlet refrains from killing Claudius earlier in the play because he had already committed the deed Hamlet himself subconsciously wished to carry out; The long repressed desire to take his fathers place in his mothers affection is revealed in unconscious activity by the sight of someone usurping this place exactly as he himself had once longed to do (Jones, 99). This is evident in the play when Hamlet has the opportunity to kill Claudius, however he decides to wait for when he is in thincestuous pleasure of his bed so he is guaranteed to suffer the same pain Hamlets father did when he was in purgatory. Eliminating his competition in the most torturous way suggests Hamlets hatred towards Claudius for marrying his mother. As an extension of this Hamlet is somewhat hostile to his mother throughout the play, shown through the language Shakespeare uses when Hamlet is alone with her. His anger towards his mothers sexuality is expressed, thus: O shame, where is thy blush? Rebellious hell, If thou canst mutine in a matrons bones, To flaming youth let virtue be as wax (3. 4. 82-4) Hamlet demands to know how young people can be expected to control their passions if mothers cannot control theirs. In the same scene, Hamlet pleads with Gertrude not to sleep with Claudius that night and to, Refrain tonight, And that shall lend a kind of easiness To the next abstinence (3. 4. 166-8) After that until she no longer wishes to sleep with Claudius. Whether this is right must be considered in psychoanalytic terms because abstinence stores up emotions that leads to a later emotional explosion. In the context of the play as a whole, this is symbolic because throughout Hamlet stores up his confusion, anxiety and turmoil until he explodes in the final scene, ending in death and destruction of the dynasty. Recent developments in Hamlet criticism suggest Hamlets attitude towards his mother can be explained in terms of Freudian psychoanalysis, in particular the Oedipus Complex where unconscious ideas and feelings centre round the wish to possess the parent of the opposite sex, and eliminate that of the same sex (Rycroft, 118), according to Charles Rycroft in A Critical Dictionary of Psychoanalysis. Although this is a modern theory which did not exist during the Shakespearean period, Shakespeare unconsciously reflects this possible interpretation of character in the play. Hamlet seeking to avenge his father by eliminating Claudius, his mothers husband, could be one of his motivations and subsequent causes of his emotional turmoil. His confusion is, therefore, redirected onto Ophelia who experiences Hamlets anguish. Rycroft also suggests that this is symbolised in Hamlet as persons who are fixated at the oedipal level that are mother-fixated or father-fixated reveal this by choosing sexual partners with obvious resemblances to their parents (Rycroft 119). However, Ophelias qualities are not representative of Gertrudes as Shakespeare suggests Gertrude tends to sexually dominate men in the play whereas Ophelia is obedient to them, suggesting she is vulnerable. Therefore, whether Rycrofts analysis is related to the play must be considered because it does not directly link to Hamlets situation, choosing to have a relationship with Ophelia because she resembles his mother he has sexual desires for. In Gertrude marrying Claudius, Hamlets jealousy is provoked, which eventually contributes to his rage when alone with his mother, You are queen, your husbands brothers wife. Here, Shakespeare shows Hamlets confusion within his complex situation, that his mother has become queen by incestuously marrying her husbands brother. Combined with Hamlets oedipal fantasy and his mothers new marriage, therefore, he is bound to show rage and confusion towards his mother and hostility towards her new partner. In conclusion, Hamlet is a character whose mind is in turmoil, which is subliminally presented through Shakespeares use of soliloquies. This turmoil could exist due to Hamlets life experiences, whether they were his fathers death or his mothers hasty marriage to his uncle, who murdered his father. These occurrences may have caused Hamlets confusion between mothers and lovers, his contemplation of suicide and his hostility towards others, resulting in catastrophe at the end of the play. An Elizabethan audience would not sympathise with Hamlets hostility towards other and his delay in taking vengeance and so could argue that his mind is in turmoil, the reason why he is inactive.

Financial audit Essay Example for Free

Financial audit Essay A deficiency in internal control exists when the design or operation of a control does not allow management or employees, in the normal course of performing their assigned functions, to prevent, or detect and correct, misstatements on a timely basis. A deficiency in design exists when (a) a control necessary to meet the control objective is missing, or (b) an existing control is not properly designed so that, even if the control operates as designed, the control objective would not be met. A deficiency in operation exists when a properly designed control does not operate as designed or when the person performing the control does not possess the necessary authority or competence to perform the control effectively. * Material weakness. A deficiency or a combination of deficiencies, in internal control, such that there is a reasonable possibility that a material misstatement of the entitys financial statements will not be prevented, or detected and corrected, on a timely basis. * Significant deficiency. A deficiency, or a combination of deficiencies, in internal control that is less severe than a material weakness yet important enough to merit attention by those charged with governance. AU-C Â §265 also claims that the auditor should communicate to management at an appropriate level of responsibility, on a timely basis. in writing, significant deficiencies and material weaknesses that the auditor has communicated or intends to communicate to those charged with governance, unless it would be inappropriate to communicate directly to management in the circumstances. * in writing or orally, other deficiencies in internal control identified during the audit that have not been communicated to management by other parties and that, in the auditors professional judgment, are of sufficient importance to merit managements attention. If other deficiencies in internal control are communicated orally, the auditor should document the communication.

History of the Feminist Art Movement

History of the Feminist Art Movement Before the twentieth century, women artists struggled to participate in the male-dominated art world. Male domination forbade female learning in general. Women had minimal access to courses in art history, philosophy, and anatomy of the human body. Not gaining any perspective of the human anatomy hindered the women artists from creating realistic portraits or accurate majestic scenes. Along with the educational limitations, female artists were forbidden to sketch from live models because it compromised their integrity. Proper social protocol would suggest that self-expression of a female was limited to bearing children, conforming to proper social etiquette and lace making. Some women artists rejected social protocol of marriage to pursue freedom within their artistic expressions. These female artists laid the foundation for equality of artistic freedom despite the harsh regulations placed on their paintings. These pioneering female artists would discreetly incorporate feminist meanings into their work and wanted to remove the gender label from their artworks. The purpose of de-gendering their art was to compete and find recognition of their talents within the art society. By de-gendering their paintings, female artists started to gain recognition of their talents. During the early nineteenth century, female artists reputations affirmed their talents and they slowly achieved success. The twentieth century marked a major social and cultural movement for them. Female artists insisted equality within society by protesting the gender biases and limited opportunities within the art community. Their disapproval provided a foundation for women artists to fight for equality and justice within museums and art galleries. Along with verbally fighting for equality, these women designed their art to cross gender, sexual, and social norms. Early generation feminist artists inspired future generations o f female artists to break the stereotypes of art. Pioneering female artists had the courage to create artistic masterpieces, expose the gender biases within the art community, and shatter creative boundaries within society. This path for womens equality in art was received with criticism and objectification. Noticeable separation of male to female artists is illustrated in Johann Zoffanys group portrait of the newly founded Royal Academy in 1772. Female artists Kaufmann and Moser are not included among the male artists but their portraits hung on the academys walls (Chadwick 7). Their artistic talents were comparable to the gentlemen within the academy, yet, Zoffany treated these women as objects, not equals. During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, women were barred from the study of the nude models that formed the basis for academic training. The lack of academic training provided to these women did not stifle them from succeeding within the art community. Sofonisba Anguissola illustrated in fifteenth century that women could challenge the male artist, even with the limitations placed on their artistic boundaries. Women were confined to paint only self-portraits or respectable landscapes. Sofonisba Self-Portraits exemplifies her techniques in painting by the contrast, lights, and colors used in her portraits. These portraits incorporate her place within society, culture, and her own virtuoso. Sofonisbas father stifled her paintings when she became of age to marry. She refused to stop painting and defied society by continuing to paint when she was married and was bearing children (Chave). Her portraits still astound the art community with her brush techniques. Artemisia Gentileschi challenged society with her portrait of Susanna and the Elders created after the conviction of Artemisias rapist. She lived a horrible life of torture, rape, and deception. Her father was a great artist and ran his own studio for inspiring male artist. Her father taught her how to paint within the boundaries of properly raised females. During one of her fathers sessions a young student lured Artemisia to an outside room and raped her at the age of twelve. The charge of rape was unheard of and the case was taken to the high courts. At the trial, her thumbs were bound and tightened with each question asked by the court. This torture was to ensure the court that she was telling the truth under pain. The young gentleman was convicted, which embarrassed her fathers reputation. Artemisias father disowned her for many years over the judges ruling. She was able to transform her passion and personal pain over the years to create artistic masterpieces. With her success, s he opened a school for women artist at the young age of 14 (Mieke). Womens liberation was still considered absurd through the 1800s, but one woman artist took the world by surprise. Rosa Bonheur was an extraordinary woman that was restricted to drawing and painting wildlife portraits and landscapes. Rosa incorporated messages of empowerment and rebellion in The Horse Fair, which illustrates horses being pulled and shoved by the male handlers. The message of The Horse Fair was translated over the years as the horses represented the womens struggle for equality and freedom. In her personal life, she broke the mold by dressing as a man, having a female companion, and controlled her own money (Madden). Rosas conviction to be a woman artist and self reliant demonstrated early ambitions of womens liberations. The womens liberation movement started to gain momentum in the early 1900s with the Womens Suffrage Movement. This movement involved women uniting for equality within the social and political organizations. These rebellious women uprooted themselves from the daily tasks of cooking and cleaning to picket the White House for equality. The feminist movement for equality did not gain much political ground and many of these organizations disbanded over the inequality frustrations. This movement influenced many women to start exploring their own freedoms within society. This female exploration developed into various feminist organizations that promoted carefree attitudes of dancing, smoking, and enjoying life. Enjoying life was short lived for the early feminist groups due to the Great Depression in the 1930s. During WWII, feminist started to pull out of the depression and began performing masculine rolls within society. Rosie the Riveter was an image of the powerful women supporting their family and the country while at war. The image of Rosie fueled the sense of independence and freedom within women lives. Unfortunately, the war ended and men returning home from war wanted their positions back as the family provider. Women returning to the role of homemaker did not sit well with the feminist organizations because they started to gain social and political freedoms (Nguyen). The early 1900s laid a foundation for women rights and freedom of self-expression and liberation. However, it took another twenty years for the feminist movement to gain any ground within society or the art community. Through the 1960s and 1970s, America was facing the Vietnam War and social changes within the largest social structure, the Catholic Church. Women realized their lack of representation within society and the art community. They began to organize themselves into support groups in order to raise awareness of equal opportunities. A new wave of feminism gained momentum by actively questioning gender norms and tackling stereotypes. The Womens Liberation Movement in the Sixties started with the fight for Civil Rights among blacks, the left-wing political student revolution of 1968, and the demonstrations against the Vietnam War (Humm 132). In addition, these protests included the struggle for abortion-rights, sexual freedom, social, and economical equality. The Womens Liberation and female artists became intimately joined forces in fighting for visualizing the injustices of society. The inequality of women expanded into the artistic community that escorted the first protest on the American art world. These protests focused on racism and sexism within the art community that enraged many feminist. The progress for equality was beginning to become organized and powerful, which allowed for all injustices to be fair game. One of the organizations was the Art Workers Coalition that was formed by artist George Takis. He removed one of his sculptures from the Museum of Modern Art or MoMA in 1969, which drew attention to his disapproval of the treatment of various artists (Gross). However, his protest for women artists equality was not as important to him as other causes. This infuriated the women artists within the group to strike out on their own. The Women Artists in Revolution or WAR was an established as a fragment organization to protest the male dominated Art Worker Coalition. Cindy Nemser is an art historian and critic, who published numerous journals in the 1970s about the liberation of women artists. She attended one of the first meetings of WAR. They gained recognition as artists and not as objects within the art community (Russell and Spencer 112). One of the crucial topics during the first meeting was the debate whether to have an all womens artist exhibition. A few women felt fearful that they would be stigmatized by exhibiting their artwork with only women. Within moments the debate resolved to the resolution to have a exhibit featuring twelve women artists, which they would call X12:X. The intention of this exhibit was to illustrate the power and talents of women artists and it became a milestone for equal artistic rights. These twelve women artists conducted their exhibition on the roof in the East Village, NYC in 1970. Artists were: Iris Crump, Lois DiCosola, Maryann Gillies, Silvianna Goldsmith, Helene Gross, Doloris Holmes, Arline Lederman, Inverna Lockpez, Carolyn Mazzello, Vernita Nemec, Doris OKane, and Alida Walsh (Bock DiCosola). That same year of the X12:X exhibition the A.W.C. and W.A.R. collaborated to protest the actions of the Whitney Museum. The Whitney Museums Annual opening in 1970 featured 143 artists and only 8 of the artist were women (Gross). This lack of women artists representation in the museum piloted demonstrations by the Women Artist in Revolution and the Art Workers Coalition. These organizations advocated equal opportunities by direct open letters, demonstrations, and media interviews. The purpose of these demonstrations was to insist that all the art institutions reorganize the museums exhibition agenda. These demands included topics of feminism, anti-racism, and anti-war movements that needed to be incorporated into the museums exhibitions. In addition, these demands included the participation of the art institutions to exhibit and place minorities and womens artists within society. Due to the intensive fight for equality of female representation at the museums the Whitney Museum raised from 5% in 1970 to 22% in 1971. These protests opened many avenues for social and artistic equality within society (Tobias). Another organization fighting for women artists rights was AIR or Artists in Residence. The AIR Gallery open in 1972 and is the first non-profit gallery that exhibits women artists in America. These female artists would determine what programs and exhibits would be illustrated in the gallery. Also, each female artist would have the opportunity to demonstrate their works by designing and installing their own show. Some of these exhibits would attract some commercial venues but the majority of the exhibits would challenge the view against the stereotypes of women in society (Chave). This artistic evolution opened numerous opportunities for writers to focus on the history of womens equality within the artistic society. Moreover, these writers wanted to expose the tainted past with the historical perception of women artist. Linda Nochlin published an essay in 1971 called, Why Have There Been No Great Women Artists? This essay inspired women artists to reject art history of women because of the injustices within the educational and cultural opportunities. These rejections offered women the authority to reject the customary artistic education, which was held in reserve for male artists. She communicates that the fault for the lack of women artist did not lie within their stars or hormones. Linda explains that women artists do not have the golden nugget of genius and continues to state that women artists were not born with the genes to be a great artist because of the lack of a penis (Nochlin). Lindas publication encouraged many women artist to reject the past and re ach within their soul to find new inspirations within female art. Judy Chicago read Nochlins essay and began to re-educate herself in art history by rejecting the tilted observations of male art history. Judys earlier exhibitions of her work at the Jewish Museum included paintings as the Rainbow Pickets and Primary Structures. These earlier artworks utilized the Minimalists approach (Chave). However, this approach to art was abandoned with the awareness of the fight for womens equality within the artistic community. Nochlins essay inspired women like Judy to move toward the feminist art faction and to usher in aspirations of artistic creativity. The female artists of the revolution went beyond gender bias to create a new generation of stirring and proactive art. This evolution of womens expressionism facilitated the new wave of liberating topics that was incorporated into paintings, sculptures, and education (Lucie-Smith 196). Miriam Schapiro embraced the female experience of crafts and developed a new median of art. She was inspired by this feminist movement to demonstrate and elevate the status of crafts to a fine art through sewing, collage, and painting. The use of embroidery and cross-stitching within art has come to be known as femmage. Femmage was a word that stood for hand sewn art that incorporated different fabrics and textures. This unique use of crafts elevated her work to the high-art of collages, which is seen in the Dolls House at the Womanhouse project (Bock DiCosola). Schapiro wanted to encourage the ordinary housewives to be inspired and made aware that their daily tasks could be turned into beautiful art. Her popularity within the womens community allowed her to challenge the establishments of injustices and encouraged women to emerge from the isolation of the housewifes persona. Schapiros enthusiasm for liberating the housewife included educational projects with Judy Chicago. Judy and Miriam became acquainted by their recognition of each others earlier artistic challenges in the male dominated art society. They first met at a dinner held in the home of Allan Kaprow, where they discussed the possibility of Schapiro lecturing at the university where Judy resided. Both of these women embraced the emancipation of women and women artists. The first advancement of educational programs for women in art was created by Judy at California State University. Judy and Schapiro integrated their talents to design the first Feminist Art Program at the California Institute of Arts (Lucie-Smith 194). It was the intention of this school to create a new generation of artists, who had an expanded knowledge of the feminist self awareness. These challenges and recognition of each others work encouraged Judy and Miriam to have an exhibit that allowed the women artists to express their new femininity. In 1972, Womanhouse project was a brainstorm of Judy Chicago and Miriam Schapiro and integrated the Feminist Art Program at the California Institute of the Arts. This exhibition encouraged students of the Feminist Art Program to participate. The intention of the Womanhouse is to showcase womens performances and art outside of the school environment. Projecting the students into the social community gave a new purpose for their art and a chance to open the minds of the public to liberating womens artistic abilities. This exhibition joined forces with all the students to prepare a dilapidated house in a suburban area of Hollywood. Students that worked several jobs had to prioritize their lives to create new pieces for the exhibit. Beyond their own works of art, the students became laborers in repairing windows, rewiring electric and other carpentry related tasks. Unfortunately, the undertaking of this project became overwhelming for the students and staff. Numerous students were pushed to their limits and suffered sleep deprivation and exhaustion in preparation. Judy became the general of this project by yelling, poking, and pushing students to their limits (Sider). The students and staff managed to convert this house into a month long art exhibition for the public. Each woman was given a room to create whatever they wanted, providing it followed the parameters of the females experiences. The Womanhouse exhibition was received with mixed reactions by the critics. These participating artists were less concerned with the critics and more concerned with raising the conscious awareness in femininity. Each night of the show, the media and spectators filled the exhibition rooms to interact with many talented artists. The general, or Judy, created the Menstruation Bathroom that included a waste basket overflowing with dirty, bloody pads. She also scattered around the bathroom various feminine hygiene projects. Another inventive use of household items is the Linen Closet designed by Sandra Orgel. The Linen Closet illustrates a women trapped inside the closet or incorporated into the closet next to the folded towels. The head of the females appears to have been chopped off and placed on the self. The one leg appears to be outside but also attached to the body, it seems to be that she was stuck inside the boundaries of traditional womens duties. The traditional womens duty was challenged by a room called Waiting at Womanhouse. Waiting at Womanhouse was performed by Faith Wilding, which involves her sitting in a room with her hands folded while she rocks back and forth reciting words that stereotyped women. Faith would mutter words like, waiting for someone to feed me, put me on the toilet, or waiting for menopause. The message provided by this piece demonstrates the outdated suppression of females but also provides a powerful voice to break the cycle of oppression. Nurturant Kitchen was a combined insulation by Susan Frazier, Robin Weltsch and Vicki Hodgetts. The Womanhouse exhibit provided a creative outlet for the artist to explore the feminist view of unequal opportunities in society. Moreover, it illustrates the talents that women possess when they are not muffled by the male dominated society (Sider). During the Womanhouse exhibit, another organization for womens equal rights was beginning to assemble. In 1971, the Women in Arts Foundation or WIA became a structured foundation that addressed the discriminations against women artists. This foundation challenged the unfair practices of jurying female artists for shows. Also, they provided educational and professional information to these artists, so that they could govern their careers with knowledge. A majority of these educational programs tackled topics dealing with various law practices, grants, art dealers, and coping with critics (Morgan). The WIA organization also contributed in protests that took to the streets of New York. They would have television interviews, speeches, and even picketed events that were unjust to the female artist. WIA conducted a protest in front of MoMA, which included numerous open letter campaigns to the New York museums to reorganize their ignorance toward women artists. The result of this protest led to the Women Choose Women exhibition that opened in 1973. This show included only 109 of nearly 500 WIA members (Tobias). Although the percentage of women was low, it still set a precedent for future womens exhibitions. Women Choose Women was essential not only because it was the first womens museum exhibition but it gained recognition by the art community. It was important because it demonstrated that women artists were no longer under the control of the male influences and these males could no longer determine what works of the females would be exhibited. Also these women artists would decide how these exhibitions would be interpreted. Inverna Lockpez was one of the artists featured in this exhibition with an untitled painting. Lockpez was always involved with the womens movement since the early sixties and felt that this show was overdue. Buffie Johnson, Betty Parsons, and Mary Frank were among some of the diverse artists that were featured in this exhibit. This show illustrated various womens artistic abilities and was hosted by the New York Cultural Center (Jolly). The Women Choose Women show set precedence for other women artists to unify and take control of their artwork. The Women Choose Women and the sexual revolution aided in the liberation of homosexual and bisexual female artists. However, the fight for womens freedom was still ongoing and to tackle another issue for female homosexual equality would be challenging. The League for the Advancement of Lesbianism in the Arts was founded in Los Angeles. This foundation provided a safe environment for their members to explore the freedom of sexuality through their art. In New York City lesbian artists protested the lack of support within the art community. Ellen Turner, Maxine Fine, Flavia Rando, Ellen Turner and Fran Winant would target high traffic populated areas and saturate them with copies of their artworks. These artwork flyers would have the female artists drawings, which was stamped with the word lesbian art across the flyer. In 1974, the Lesbian Herstory Archives was founded in New York City by Joan Nestle and Deborah Edel. The undertaking of this foundation was to gather and preserve records of lesbian lives and activities so that future generations will have access to the material. Moreover, lesbian artists were gaining some recognition in 1978 with A Lesbian Show exhibition (Jolly). Harmony Hammond created the A Lesbian Show which was an exhibition that featured lesbian artists. In the early 1970s, she exhibited art pieces that resembled the feminist attitudes of the times. Beyond the confronting of the current feminist agenda, Harmony came out as a lesbian and became a strong voice for future generations of lesbian artists. She is an accomplished artist that incorporates lesbian feminism into her paintings, sculptures, and writings. Her artistic works incorporates the female stereotypical household materials into her sculptures and paintings. Some of these materials included the use of blankets, curtains, and any recycled cloths that were transformed into crocheted painted rugs. Harmony also experimented with latex and rubber materials in her sculptures which are illustrated in her bag collection. Today, this pioneer of womens art is still an accomplished artist, writer, curator, and publisher on the topic of lesbian art (Russell and Spencer 220-221). In the 1970s there were many foundations that supported the feminist fight. However, lets go beyond the organizations or exhibitions and explore a few of these pioneering feminist artists. These women used their artistic creativity to express unique insights within feminist art. It is important to recognize each of these following women as courageous and bold women within their own convictions to broaden the artists awareness to female art and equality. Cindy Sherman established her reputation as an artist by using Untitled Film Stills to provide a different prospective on photography. In the late 1970s, she created a series of black-and-white photographs which the artist depicted herself dressed in the guises of clichà ©d B-movie heroines. Another artist that used film within the artistic community was Joyce Wieland. She was a painter, writer, and director of her own movies, which include The Far Shore. Joyce is called the pioneer of the idea of women working together to create art. She was the first artist to hire outside individual quilters to quilt various pieces for her Reason Over Passion(Chadwick 383). Joyce was considered one of the most important artist figures with the U.S. and Canada. Judy Chicago used other female artists to aid her creation of the 1979 piece called The Dinner Party. She had taken the idea of getting other women to help her from Joyce Wieland, but unlike Wieland, Judy Chicago never paid the people who worked for her. This Dinner Party took five years to complete and she has since received a bad reputation for exploiting the work of other artists by taking the credit for herself (Chadwick 229). Judys efforts and drive helped the feminist movement toward a positive direction but after this show her past accomplishments were over shadowed by her greed. Benglis is the next feminist artist that rocked the artistic community. Her creations are very unusual concepts of the use of latex. During the feminist movement, she poured latex and foam to create sculptures. Benglis angrily created these works of art to represent the male dominated fusion of paintings and sculptures that had taken place within Process Art and Minimalism. Movement of the material was the purpose for creating these sculptures with the foam and latex. Benglis work was met with controversy over the critical awareness of the abstraction of content and the gesture of the mass (Tobias). Her creations of sculptures were very formal but used unique materials that captured the audience imagine. The sculptures during the feminist movement varied from latex to fiberglass. Hesses preferred material was fiberglass, which incorporated organic geometric elements into the sculptures. Most of her sculptures were rigid and contained mechanical shapes and forms. Unfortunately, during her peak of artistic genius, Hesse discovered that she had a brain tumor. It has been said that her unique situation gave her the inspiration to boldly use materials like latex, rubber, and cheesecloths to define movement within the sculptures (Chadwick 340). The last feminist artist that inspired this research for the liberating art movement was Betye Saar. She began creating artworks that incorporated the social injustices arranged within boxes with windows. Saar used mixed media collages, assemblages, and installations to illustrate her message of freedom. Saars work had a methodic element of passage of life, death, and rebirth. Each of her artworks conveyed stories of equalities, her own mixed culture, and the fight for civil liberties. The majority of her art work deals with issues of race and gender equality. The Liberation of Aunt Jemima forces the audience to see the injustices within the social boundaries of life(Barko). In closure, the evolution of the artistic freedom illustrates the level of bias within the education and opportunities offered to the early pioneer women artists. During the late 1960s and early 1970s, female artists began to organize and fight for equal artistic and personal freedoms. These early struggles for equal exhibitions led many female artists to conduct protests and boycotts of various museums to gain recognition. Various female artists that had the opportunity to exhibit their works opened new avenues for future feminist artists. These artistic pioneers illustrated that females are just as talented, bold, and provocative as male artists. The golden egg theory that males had a gift from God to be great artists was trampled by the feminist artistic movement. Moreover, these feminist artists demonstrated that their artworks were just as marketable as the male artists works. The organizations formed by these women were used to provide support and advancement within the artisti c community. Many of these feminists artistic organizations still exist today. They still continue to fight for equality and equal exposure for the female artist and their artworks. Nowadays, women artists are able to benefit from these pioneers of liberation; however, to benefit from the past is to maintain the level of artistic freedom in the future. Work Cited Anguissola, Sofonisba. Self Portrait. 1561. Painting. http://www-english.tamu.edu/pers/fac/phillippy/_women_artists/anguissola/. 30 Nov. 2009. Barko, Cortney Cronberg. Rediscovering Female Voice and Authority: The Revival of Female Artists in Wendy Wassersteins The Heidi Chronicles. Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies 29.1 (Mar. 2008): 121-138. Academic Search Elite. EBSCO. Westmoreland County Community College Learning Resources Center. 23 Aug. 2009 . Benglis, Lynda. Quartered Meteor. 1969. Photo.http://www.cheimread.com/exhibitions/2002_10_bettina-rheimslynda-benglis/. 30 Nov. 2009. Bock DiCosola, Lois Ann. Feminists Who Changed America 1963-1975 . 2007. 13 September,2009. . Bonheur, Rosa. The Horse Fair. 1853. http://www.shepherd.edu/englweb/artworks/A8.jpg. 30 Nov. 2009. Chave, Anna C. I Object Hannah Wilkes (Feminism). Art in America 97.3 (Mar. 2009): 104. MasterFILE Premier. EBSCO. Westmoreland County Community College Learning Resources Center. 23 Aug. 2009 . Chadwick, Whitney. Women, Art, and Society . 4th Ed. Canada: Thames HudsonWorld of Art, 2007. Chicago, Judy. The Dinner Party. 1974-79. Photo. http://arthistory.about.com/od/from_exhibitions/ig/spring07/sp2007exh_03.htm. 30 Nov. 2009. Chicago, Judy. Menstruation Bathroom. 1973. Photo. http://feministartrevolution.blogspot.com/2007/12/womanhouse-1973.html. 30 Nov.2009. Chicago, Judy. Rainbow Pickett. 1965. Photo.http://www.lewallencontemporary.com/judychicago. 30 Nov. 2009. Frazier, Susan, Hodgetts, Vicki, Weltsch, Robin. Nurturant Kitchen. 1973. Photo. http://feministartrevolution.blogspot.com/2007/12/womanhouse-1973.html. 30 Nov.2009. Gentileschi, Artemisia. Susanna and the Elders. 1610. Painting. http://www.artemisia-gentileschi.com/susanna.html. 30 Nov. 2009. Gross, Alexander. The Artists Branch of the Movement. Inside the Sixties Book. 2009.September 15,2009. . Hammond, Harmony. Bag XI. 1971. 1973. Photo. http://www.brooklynmuseum.org/eascfa/feminist_art_base/gallery/harmonyhammond.php?i=832. 30 Nov. 2009. Hammond, Harmony. Floorpiece VI. 1973. Photo. http://www.brooklynmuseum.org/eascfa/feminist_art_base/gallery/harmonyhammond.php?i=832. 30 Nov. 2009. Hesse, Eva. Right After. 1969. Photo. http://www.brooklynmuseum.org/eascfa/feminist_art_base/gallery/eva_hesse.php?i=1700.30 Nov. 2009. Humm, Maggie. The Dictionary of Feminist Theory. 2nd ed. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1995. Lucie-Smith, Edward. Movements in Art Since 1945. 1st Ed. Canada: Thames Hudson World of Art, 2001. Jolly, Margaretta. Lesbian Herstory Archives. 2009. LHEF, Inc..13 September,2009. http://www.lesbianherstoryarchives.org/index.html. Lesbian Herstory Archives. Lesbian Herstory Archives Photo 1974. Photo. http://www.lesbianherstoryarchives.org/index.html. 30 Nov. 2009. Lockpez, Inverna. Untitled. Movements in Art Since 1945. 1st Ed. Canada: Thames Hudson World of Art, 2001. Madden, Gerry. Rosa Bonheur, a Boy in Petticoats. Hopscotch 16.6 (Apr. 2005): 36. MasterFILE Premier. EBSCO. Westmoreland County Community College Learning Resources Center. 22 Aug. 2009 . Mieke, Bal. The Artemisia Files: Artemisia Gentileschi for Feminists and Other Thinking People. 1st ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005. Morgan, Ann Lee. Feminist Art. Art Journal 54.3 (Fall95 1995): 102. MasterFILE Premier. Westmoreland County Community

The Nike Co. Essay -- essays research papers

NIKE 1.)Description of Nike. 2.)Definition of Total Quality Management and how Nike implements it. 3.)Definition of the Five Elements of Task Environment and how Nike. implements it. The company: 1-A brief history of the organization 2- Nike’s goals 3- Nike’s objectives 4-Markets 5-Size Compare theory with what we found Conclusion Ø DESCRIPTION Basketball players want to be like Mike, but shoe companies want to be like NIKE. NIKE is the world's number one shoe company and controls more than 40% of the athletic shoe market. The company designs and sells shoes for just about every sport, including baseball, volleyball, cheerleading, and wrestling. Nike doesn't only sell athletic shoes, but a wide variety of sporting goods and clothing; they design, develop, and market high quality active sports apparel, equipment, and accessory products. Their huge lines of products are designed for just about every sport in existence. Their products are made for men, women, and children of all ages. In addition, it operates NIKETOWN shoe and sportswear stores and is opening JORDAN in-store outlets in urban markets. NIKE sells its products to about 19,000 US accounts, in about 140 other countries, and online. Chairman, CEO, and co-founder Phil Knight owns about 36% of the firm. Ø TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT Total quality management represents both a social revolution in the work place and a rigorously effective approach to professionalism and success. Total quality management is a management system that is an integral part of an organization's strategy and is aimed at continually improving products and service quality so as to achieve high levels of customer satisfaction and build strong customer loyalty .In other words, the true Total Quality organization will eliminate all competition other than from other Total Quality giants. Many companies have benefited from an emphasis on TQM; however, it does require a considerable amount of company wide commitment to be successful . The customer doesn't know what is technically or organizationally feasible. So the key, challenge to a competitive organization, is to raise the expectations of the market place by providing goods and services at quality levels higher than those offered by the competition. We can now see that there are two principal elements to Total Quality: a business strategic element base o... ...V ads during professional and college sports events, prime-time programs, and late-night TV programs. The advertising and innovative marketing in the industry should still leave it extremely competitive. The only problem that Nike worries about is customers becoming less brand-loyal and buying cheaper athletic shoe brands. Nike is trying to make the point that it is worth spending more money on better quality made shoe, than buying a cheap shoe that will only last a little while. One major area that brings unlimited opportunities to Nike is the international market. In the United Sates, there are 4 people for every pair of Nikes, France has 11, Japan has 50, China has 11,821, and Lebanon has 40 (reference from manager). Nike distributes to more than 40 branches in Lebanon and they have their own main branch situated in Mid-Beirut. Nike is by far the biggest organization in the shoe industry and far surpases its competetors in profits gained. Nike sells throught the world in more than 110 countries throught a span of six continents. It is known by most consumers as the dominant power in the sports industry and is usually the athelets’ top choice when it comes to sports apparel.

Prohibition is Destroying America Essay -- Drugs

The war on drugs began with good intentions, but it is becoming clear that this battle is a failure. Not only do drug laws violate American’s freedoms, but they further complicate the lives of drug users. These laws have inadvertently been responsible for the deaths of thousands through bad drug deals and dirty drugs, which leads one to ask the question, â€Å"Is this a war on drugs or a war on drug users?† Body bags and HIV are becoming the most widely known side effects of drug prohibition. Contrary to what many may think, drug use will never be eliminated. Only through legalization and strict state-controlled regulations will the violent and deadly consequences of drug laws be controlled. By making these substances available, the drugs themselves will be safer and cheaper, government spending and prison population will decrease, and most importantly, Americans will be freer. In 1920, the federal government outlawed a substance they felt was destroying America, alcohol. Millions of Americans would shutter at the idea of not attending mid-week â€Å"happy hour† after a long day of work. But, the right to drink alcohol was stripped away from Americans by the federal government under the Volstead Act of 1920 (Behr). Over the next thirteen years, over $733 million, of today’s money, was spent putting Americans behind bars for minimal delinquencies, such as having a martini at a local speakeasy (Barbour). Since alcohol was no longer manufactured by trusted companies like Anheuser-Busch, it was now in the hands of black market racketeers, like Al Capone (Behr). Due to the diminishing availability of alcohol, more potent forms, like moonshine, became wildly popular and in New York in 1926, â€Å"bad liquor† claimed the lives of 750 people (Behr). ... ...on. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, Inc. 2000. Print. Barnett, Randy E. â€Å"The Harmful Side Effects of Drug Prohibition.† Utah Law Review 2009.1 (2009): 11-34. Academic Search Complete. Web. 22 Mar. 2012. Behr, Edward. Prohibition: Thirteen Years That Changed America. New York: Arcade Publishing, 1996. Print. Gerdes, Louise I., ed. At Issue: Legalizing Drugs. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, Inc. 2001. Print. Miron, Jeffrey A. and Katherine Waldock. â€Å"The Budgetary Impact of Ending Drug Prohibition†. CATO Institute. CATO Institute, 27 Sept. 2010. Web. 22 Mar 2012. Rogers, Douglas. â€Å"The Fiasco of Prohibition.† Freeman: Ideas on Liberty 61.1 (2011): 25. MasterFILE Complete. Web. 22 Mar. 2012. United States. Dept. of Justice. Office of Justice. Bureau of Justice Statistics. Drug and Crime Facts. Bureau of Justice Statistics. Dept. of Justice, Mar. 2012. Web. 22 Mar. 2012. Prohibition is Destroying America Essay -- Drugs The war on drugs began with good intentions, but it is becoming clear that this battle is a failure. Not only do drug laws violate American’s freedoms, but they further complicate the lives of drug users. These laws have inadvertently been responsible for the deaths of thousands through bad drug deals and dirty drugs, which leads one to ask the question, â€Å"Is this a war on drugs or a war on drug users?† Body bags and HIV are becoming the most widely known side effects of drug prohibition. Contrary to what many may think, drug use will never be eliminated. Only through legalization and strict state-controlled regulations will the violent and deadly consequences of drug laws be controlled. By making these substances available, the drugs themselves will be safer and cheaper, government spending and prison population will decrease, and most importantly, Americans will be freer. In 1920, the federal government outlawed a substance they felt was destroying America, alcohol. Millions of Americans would shutter at the idea of not attending mid-week â€Å"happy hour† after a long day of work. But, the right to drink alcohol was stripped away from Americans by the federal government under the Volstead Act of 1920 (Behr). Over the next thirteen years, over $733 million, of today’s money, was spent putting Americans behind bars for minimal delinquencies, such as having a martini at a local speakeasy (Barbour). Since alcohol was no longer manufactured by trusted companies like Anheuser-Busch, it was now in the hands of black market racketeers, like Al Capone (Behr). Due to the diminishing availability of alcohol, more potent forms, like moonshine, became wildly popular and in New York in 1926, â€Å"bad liquor† claimed the lives of 750 people (Behr). ... ...on. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, Inc. 2000. Print. Barnett, Randy E. â€Å"The Harmful Side Effects of Drug Prohibition.† Utah Law Review 2009.1 (2009): 11-34. Academic Search Complete. Web. 22 Mar. 2012. Behr, Edward. Prohibition: Thirteen Years That Changed America. New York: Arcade Publishing, 1996. Print. Gerdes, Louise I., ed. At Issue: Legalizing Drugs. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, Inc. 2001. Print. Miron, Jeffrey A. and Katherine Waldock. â€Å"The Budgetary Impact of Ending Drug Prohibition†. CATO Institute. CATO Institute, 27 Sept. 2010. Web. 22 Mar 2012. Rogers, Douglas. â€Å"The Fiasco of Prohibition.† Freeman: Ideas on Liberty 61.1 (2011): 25. MasterFILE Complete. Web. 22 Mar. 2012. United States. Dept. of Justice. Office of Justice. Bureau of Justice Statistics. Drug and Crime Facts. Bureau of Justice Statistics. Dept. of Justice, Mar. 2012. Web. 22 Mar. 2012.

Age of Enlightenment Essay -- World History, 18th century

The 18th century is referred to as the ‘Age of Enlightenment’. The trends in thought and letters from Europe to the American colonies brought a new light and attention upon mankind. This new movement described a time in Western philosophy and cultural life in which reason was advocated as the primary source and legitimacy for authority. ‘To understand the natural world and humankinds place in it solely on the basis of reason and without turning to religious belief was the goal of the wide-ranging intellectual movement’ (Hackett). At the heart o this age, a conflict began between religion and the inquiring mind that wanted to know and understand through reason based on evidence and proof rather than belief on faith alone. Many scholars believed that this was primarily a French movement because the French culture dominated Europe and their ideas were expressed in the environment of the Parisian salon. IN my opinion, this movement was even more influential on the world because it was primarily a middle-class movement.. These pioneers labored for man in general and for humanity. This was also an era that public readings by scholars and philosophers came into existence because of increased literacy. These philosophers however, lived a very precarious life due to the fact that they did not know if they would be imprisoned or courted for their public performances. The analytical methods of Newtonian physics placed its stamp on the Enlightenment Era. Order and regularity came from the analysis of observed facts. The new ideal of knowledge was simply a further development of the 17th century logic and science with a new emphasis on; 1. The particular rather than the general. 2. Observable facts rather than principles. 3. Experience ra... ... because human beings are more willing to question their belief systems now and that is thanks to the Age of Enlightenment. I believe the most important issues involving the Enlightenment period was the recognition of the middle class. Most of the influential people of the period were from the working class. The rise in literacy gave the middle class more opportunities to spread their wings and become an influential voice in society. References Copestone, Frederick., A History of Philosophy. London. Search, 1946.Print. Roman, Chris. A World of Ideas. New York. Palatine. 1999.Print Thackeray, Frank. Events that Changed the World in the Eighteenth Century. Westport. Greenwood Press.1998. Print. World History Project. World History International. 1995-2006. Web. 19 Dec. 2010 Rempel, Gerhard, Western New England College. 2007.Web. 19 Dec 2010

The impacts of Elvis Presley

The impacts of Elvis Presley can be divided into several groups. Firstly is the impact in terms of the amount of sales that he made. He made 6 hit singles, at the time he had only been going for 10 months. This is more that any artist would hope to get in their whole career. His popularity among the younger generations also helps to see the impact the he has made, someone noticed that there was a market for music aimed towards younger generations, so they set out looking for someone; this meant that he had no competition when he was released onto the market. Because of this the impact seemed a lot greater, there had never been anything like it. Among adults there was also outrage because it went against everything that they believed to be right and good. The outrage meant that it must be cool to like him so his popularity grew. He also had a long term impact in that it wasn't just the music. You could get toys and films, records and books. All of this added to the impact of him on U. S society. The next thing to consider is whether it was down to his music. Whatever anyone says it was clear that he had amazing talent; this doesn't mean that everyone liked him but everyone acknowledged that it had its place. He was deemed â€Å"A white man that can sing like a black man†, he was something different and in this time there was no one else like him. The amount of sales from his records also helps to give evidence supporting this. He made it to number to in the company's charts in a very short time shows how effective his music was. His unique dancing style meant that people were attracted to him. If they didn't like him they still watched to see what all of the commotion was about. The fact that he appealed to the younger generations was the main reason for his success. The media, in particular the TV meant that he was always in the public eye. When he went onto the Milton Berle show for the first time they managed to knock Sergeant Bilko off of the top ratings. Everyone watched because the children liked him and the adults just had to see this controversy. The fact that he was followed all through his service in the army meant that he was given allot of credit. They saw his every move and everything he did. This built a lot of credit for him even amongst the adults. Then when he left the army he went straight into a TV special with Frank Sinatra. This meant that he had never really left the public eye, because he was still popular enough to do TV specials. There are other things that helped though; firstly there was a huge gap in the market where teenagers were concerned. This meant that there were many opportunities to offer something for the teenagers and because there was nothing else there would be no competition. They also had a greater chance of any bands released for the teenagers being liked. Marketing also played a big role in his impact on society. The amount of money that went into selling him was incredible. Everywhere that a teenager went there was something to remind you of the â€Å"King† Posters, billboards and TV's shop windows. A third thing that would have helped his impact is the wealth of the US. After World War 2 they were the only country to make it out with a profit. Teenagers as a result were able to spend à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½7billion a year on clothes and records. This meant that there was allot of money available to spend. If people have this much money to waste as a country, the normal thing to do is spend it on something fashionable. The final thing that helped him to become so popular is the films that he stared in. There were so many of them and so many people went to see them, even if he was the worst actor ever and the plots were all the same. This meant that for the first time ever there were films specifically directed at the younger generation, adults didn't approve so the most sensible thing to do was to go and see it, if only to annoy the adults. So all in all there are there are many reasons why his impact on society was so great. I think that it can best be described as a combination of things. His films and TV specials all help towards making him popular, but I think that the thing to remember is people ultimately know him for his music. This is why I believe that his impact on society was so great. If you think about all of the other things, they only came because of the music, he was only found because he could sing.

The Doha Round and Financial Services Negotiations

The bang-up of Qatar beatnik and fiscal go Negotiations AEI STUDIES ON function heap NEGOTIATIONS Claude Barfield, series editor THE seat of g every slurnment of Qatar bike AND fiscal run NEGOTIATIONS Sydney J. headst star INSURANCE IN THE GENERAL discernment ON championship IN utilization Harold D. Skipper Jr. LIBERALIZING GLOBAL TRADE IN ENERGY take c ar pricking C. Evans REDUCING THE BARRIERS TO startside(a) TRADE IN ACCOUNTING treat Lawrence J. White The enceinte of Qatar spell and pecuniary run Negotiations Sydney J. give away The AEI Press Publisher for the the Statesn initiative inst in on the whole WA S H I N G T O N , D . C . 2003Available in the unify States from the AEI Press, c/o Client Distri justion Services, 193 Edwards Drive, Jackson, TN 38301. To order, c tout ensemble ships bell free 1-800-343-4499. Distri thoed stunnedside the United States by correspondment with Eurospan, 3 Henrietta Street, London WC2E 8LU, England. depository l ibrary of Congress Cataloging-in- themeation Data paint, Sydney J. The detonating device of Qatar stave and pecuniary function negotiations / Sydney J. rouge. p. cm. Includes bibliographical reference works and index. ISBN 0-8447-4182-5 (pbk. ) 1. fiscal suffice indus stressLaw and order 2. Foreign art rule. I. Title K1066.K49 2003 343. 087dc 22 2003063553 3 5 7 9 10 8 6 4 2 Printed in 2003 by the Ameri brush off Enterprise lay down for Public Policy Research, Washington, D. C. The views expressed in publications of the Ameri stinker Enterprise Institute atomic shape 18 those of the conditions and do non necessarily consider the views of the supply, consultive panels, trendrs, or trustees of AEI. The views expressed by the ca practice session in this publication should non be interpreted as representing the views of the Board of G everywherenors of the federal official Reserve System or allone else on its staff. Printed in the United States of America contents QFOREWORD, Claude Barfield ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 1 2 INTRODUCTION world widely TRADE IN pecuniary work E-Finance 6 tempers of leave 7 Services Provided crosswise Borders 8 Foreign luff Investment 9 social movement of raw(a) Persons 9 rest AND man interlocking trine Pillars of liberalisation 12 National give-and-take and technicalize portal 13 Nondiscriminatory morphologic Barriers 15 Freedom of cap Movements 18 Strengthening composition field pecuniary Systems 20 Minimum Standards and Codes of Good Practices 22 watchfulness 23 The prudent Carve-Out in the GATS 24 NATIONAL TREATMENT AND MARKET de tho ski spinal column Existing and Ongoing relaxation look 28 IMF Conditionality 30 Permanence of GATS Commitments 31 Foreign Direct Investment 32 be Barriers to Entry and Operation 33 MFN Exemptions 34 Barriers indoors the Scope of the prudent Carve-Out 35 Cross-Border Services 37 Binding Gaps versus Remaining Barriers 38 Un veritable(p)ty rough WTO Ju risprudence 39 v septet bakers dozen 1 4 3 11 4 27 vi CONTENTSMore Liberal Approaches for Wholesale Services 39 Evolving restrictive Responses to Retail Cross-Border Services 40 Negotiating Goals 41 5 NONDISCRIMINATORY STRUCTURAL BARRIERS Regulatory Transp atomic number 18ncy 44 Rules active development and Applying Rules 44 Sound Financial Systems 46 Effective Market Access 47 common Anti emulous Measures 49 Necessity and Domestic Regulation 50 Recognition of Prudential Measures 51 Harmonization 52 Facilitating Access 52 The Intra-EU Approach 53 Remaining Second-Pillar Barriers 54 Applic top executive of the Intra-EU Approach 55 CONCLUSION 43 6 57 61 87 101 107 NOTES REFERENCES index ABOUT THE AUTHOR Foreword Q In advanced industrial economies, the divine serve bena accounts for a firm portion of all(prenominal)(prenominal) provinces gross studyatedated product.Despite the change magnitude splendour of condescension in hunt down, the General discernment o n mickle in Services (GATS), which was negotiated during the 198694 Uruguay Round and come toed into force in January 1995, marked the showtime time that rules for fount skilfulises in operate were overwhelmd in the multi afterwards(prenominal)(prenominal)al occupy transcription. The GATS called for fulfilmentic negotiating unit of ammunitions, beginning no later than 2000, to come by means of further repose of deal out in dish. Serious individual sphere negotiations, however, did not shift into high adapt until a comprehensive tender roughly of three-party championship negotiations was launched at the November 2001 ministerial collision of the solid ground concern governance (WTO) in smashing of Qatar, Qatar. The Ameri prat Enterprise Institute is manoeuverd in a query project to focus on the latest pad of distribute negotiations on function.Mounted in conjunction with the Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University, the Brookings Inst itution, and the Coalition of Service Industries Research and discip dec chore Foundation, the project entails analysis of individual frugal atomic number 18as monetary go accounting indemnification electronic commerce energy straining freight and air cargo airline passenger function and entertainment and culture. distributively instruction identifies study barriers to change over liberalisation in the celestial sphere nether examen and assesses constitution options for pile negotiators and kindle reclusive sector participants. AEI would wish comfortably to acknowledge the side by side(p) donors for their generous support of the profession-in- function project Ameri displace Express Company American world(prenominal) aggroup CIGNA Corporation FedEx Corporation Mastercard ball-shaped the Motion Picture Association of America and the Mark Twain Institute. I emphasize, however, that the seven-spot viii FOREWORD conclusions and recommendations of the individ ual studies atomic number 18 solely those of authors.Issues for the Financial Services Negotiations In this study, Sydney J. unwrap analyzes the role of the GATS and the WTO in the rest and ordinance of the fiscal run sector and identifies six broad lasts for the fiscal function negotiations in the Doha round. What makes her analysis unique(p) is that she integrates the two very different perspectives of plow policy and monetary restrictive policy. passim the study, Key emphasizes the complementary and reciprocally reinforcing human relationship in the midst of efforts to open grocerys under the GATS and the intensifier ongoing spherical work on cook uping interior(prenominal) pecuniary systems, including prudent standard and supervision.The study examines the role of the GATS and the WTO in relation to what Key characterizes as the tether newfangledspaper columns of s overlookening needed to achieve outside(a)ist conte constancy of grocery stor es (1) hypothesis food market places to outside function and emolument suppliers by dint of GATS inscriptions to let topic sermon and market price of admission (2) implementing interior(prenominal) geomorphological reforms that would go past nondiscriminatory geomorphologic barriers to plenty in fiscal work and (3) liberalizing uppercase miens. Key explains that the GATS deals with third-pillar slackening b atomic number 18ly until now as it affects countries circumscribed(prenominal) perpetrations to modify trade in run in frequent, loosening of upper-case letter movements is a matter of concern for the planetary Monetary Fund (IMF).Key emphasizes the immensity of counseling on fundamental first-pillar repose in the Doha round monetary work negotiations and sets forth four first-pillar goals first, binding in the GATS real and ongoing repose that imparts market retrieve and matter discussion back up, removing remain barriers to case word and market portal and binding the issuanceing relaxation method third, narrowing or withdrawing the broad exemptions that rough countries make water interpreted from the nigh favored nation (MFN) liability of the GATS and, fourth, victimization an incremental orgasm for cross-border advantage that combines strengthening GATS commitments and achieving greater relaxation in practice. CLAUDE BARFIELD ix How cold should the Doha round fiscal serve negotiations extend into the res publica of second-pillar repose?Like separate(a) authors in this series, Key grapples with the role of the GATS with postulate to the house servant morphologic reform indispensablenessed to invalidate or eliminate nondiscriminatory morphological barriers to trade in operate. Key believes that the Doha round monetary work negotiations should proceed selectively by concentrating on the argonas in which the GATS and the WTO ache a comparative advantage. She singles out two crabbedly outstanding second-pillar goals for the Doha round pecuniary supporter negotiations developing stronger GATS disciplines on restrictive transp bency and removing barriers to good market access and binding the resulting rest.Key argues that GATS rules on transp arncy in developing and move overing rulers, unneurotic with the closely related principle of adjective legality in curbing regulations, would not precisely help eliminate barriers peed by muddy and unfair regulatory procedures but withal help ensure that a earth does not mapping its regulatory wait on to demoralise its commitments to issue intervention and market access. Key explains how GATS rules on transpargonncy in pecuniary operate regulation could near(prenominal)(prenominal) complement and build upon the work on transp atomic number 18ncy that is part of multinationa numberic efforts to strengthen home(prenominal) help monetary systems. The oppo come out second-pillar goal set forth b y Key contracts anti emulous interior(prenominal) regulatory measures that cannot be con star sign on prudent grounds and serve primarily to keep extraneous pecuniary self-coloreds from competing in horde- uncouth markets by fashioning intro impractical or too dearly-wonthereby denying them trenchant market access. Key explains that identifying barriers to impressive market access that could be negotiated in the Doha round requires a earths vocation partners to examine whether, in practice, a army clownishs measures keep irrelevant firms from competing in its markets and whether a critical mass of regulators believes that the measures argon in enamour for prudent purposes. She points out, however, that even if the frequent regulatory view is that the measures cannot be confirm on prudent grounds, legion- region regulators demand be persuaded to accept it. What about barriers to trade in monetary go that atomic number 18 getd by levelheadedize prudent measures? Key explains the immensity of the prudent carve-out for domestic regulation in the GATS cast up on Financial x FOREWORDServices it ensures the GATS provide not interfere with the ability of subject area semi governmental science to exercise their responsibilities for prudent regulation and supervision to protect consumers of pecuniary function and to boost the integrity and stability of the fiscal system. She notes that composition prudential measures twain(prenominal)times obligate special requirements on conflicting firms, they whitethorn in like vogue urinate barriers exclusively because they differ among countries that is, fiscal firms operational on a global posterior may a great deal find it burden whatever to follow with a multitude of different study rules. Key identifies two approaches for traffic with barriers created by prudential measures.One would thrust home- soil regulatory governance convince emcee- land authorities that the ir prudential concerns can be parcel outed with less sweeping requirements. These efforts could take practice bilaterally or in various inter bailiwick fora, including the monetary work negotiations under the auspices of the WTO, where pay ministries scat a study role. A second approach would curb home- and host solid ground authorities negotiate a comprehension arrangement. Although the GATS Annex on Financial Services advances coloured or mutual cognizance of prudential measures by permitting a departure from the MFN province of the GATS for much(prenominal) arrangements, Key explains why the WTO is not the appropriate fabrication for their negotiation.In conclusion, Key summarizes the forces affect the outcome of the Doha round monetary operate negotiations and the importance of that outcome to the mould of pecuniary sector liberalisation victory in achieving the pecuniary service goals discussed in this study depends heartyly on factors beyond the scope of the negotiations. As the GATS explicitly recognizes, relaxation behavior of trade in fiscal and early(a) services is an ongoing service. For pecuniary services, this movement is being driven in voluminous part by market forces and immanent technologies. It is in addition being driven by the growing recognition among policymakers that market opening can gain host- artless consumers of pecuniary services and, at the akin time, contribute to the resilience of domestic financial systems.The development of inter field minimal standards and codes of good practices for get financial systems and their implementation by individual CLAUDE BARFIELD xi countries pull up stakes a strong radical for moving ahead with further liberalization of trade in financial services. The negotiations in the Doha round can play an weighty role in dowery to accelerate the process of liberalization as well as solidifying its results in the form of binding commitments subject to the WTO enmi ty settlement mechanism. CLAUDE BARFIELD American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research Acknowledgments Q The author greatly appreciates the care of the many individuals who subscribe all or part of the manuscript and provided valuable comments and suggestions in their areas of expertise.She would like to thank Alistair Abercrombie, Claude Barfield, Nicholas Bayne, Stijn Claessens, Steven Fabry, Bernard M. Hoekman, Cecilia Klein, Masamichi Kono, Robert D. Kramer, Patrick Macrory, Ann Main, Marilyn L. Muench, Kathleen M. ODay, Patrick Pearson, Mary S. Podesta, Amelia Porges, peter E. W. Russell, Hal S. Scott, Richard E. Self, Jonathan D. Stoloff, and T. Whittier Warthin for practice session the manuscript in its entirety. She would as well like to thank Peter Berz, Barbara J. Bouchard, James M. Boughton, David T. Coe, Kenneth Freiberg, Ralph Kozlow, Ross B. Leckow, Michael D. Mann, Juan A. Marchetti, Peter K. Morrison, William A. Ryback, David Strongin, Mark W. Swinbu rne, Andrew Velthaus, and Obie G.Whichard for reading drafts, and frequently redrafts, of ill-tempered sections. Finally, the author would like to thank Juyne vacillate for her work in editing the manuscript. xiii 1 Introduction Q The General bargain on Trade in Services (GATS), the first global trade promise to dole out financial and former(a)(a)wise services, is an measurable rude(a) element in the inter bailiwick cloth for liberalization and regulation of the financial sector. Participation in the GATS, however, does not necessarily mean that a coarse has do strong commitments to open its markets to remote services and service suppliers. Indeed, the strength of commitments varies substantially among countries.The GATS then requires periodic negotiating rounds on financial and different services to improve commitments and thus achieve a build upively higher take of liberalization. 1 The GATS was negotiated in the Uruguay Round, which was launched in 1986 and o fficially concluded in April 1994. 2 Financial services, however, was one of several sectors for which negotiations on ad hoc commitments were extended, and final conformity was not areaed until declination 1997. 3 In 2000, in ossification with the deadline turn outed by the GATS for initiating a sweet round of services negotiations, work began once again on financial and other services. This occurred disrespect the run lowure of the Seattle ministerial meeting of the World Trade brass instrument (WTO) in declination 1999 to launch a comprehensive newfound round of trade negotiations.Subsequently, at the Doha ministerial meeting in November 2001, WTO instalments reached system on an agenda for comprehensive multilateral trade negotiations that integrate the so-called inbuilt agenda for financial and other services. 4 The ministerial announcement set January 1, 2005, as the deadline for completing the Doha round the declaration called for the next ministerial meeti ng, subsequently plan for September 2003 in Cancun, to assess progress and provide any necessary political guidance. 5 1 2 THE dandy of Qatar exposit AND monetary function NEGOTIATIONS For financial services liberalization, four aspects of the GATS and the WTO are especially significant First, the WTO is a multilateral forum in which the primary goal is simplification or eliminating trade barriers to promote agonistic markets and thereby support economic harvest-time and development.The new prominence of this goal at the multilateral level complements the intensive work on strengthening domestic financial systems in a variety of other intertheme fora, ranging from institutions much(prenominal) as the outside(a) Monetary Fund (IMF) to specialized bodies much(prenominal)(prenominal) as the Basel Committee on Banking supervision. 6 Indeed, the efforts to liberalise trade in financial services and the efforts to strengthen domestic financial systems, including prudential regul ation and supervision, are in return reinforcing. In addition, the WTO is a forum in which all portions have the opportunity to put down on an equal nates. Multilateral trade agreements are negotiated in the WTO without the conditionality that links IMF or World Bank financial assistance to the implementation of particular policy measures by a borrowing country. In principle, therefore, GATS commitments to liberalization have domestic willpowerthat is, they reflect a countrys recognition of the need for policy reforma prize that the IMF has found to be a crucial determinant of the success of its programs. 8 Second, the GATS provides a mechanism for parties to undertake law fully binding commitments subject to enforcement under the WTO quarrel settlement mechanism. A GATS commitment is changeless in that it cannot be withdrawn without earnings of trading partners. Failure to honor a commitment could open a country to a dispute settlement performance and, ultimately, WTO-s anctioned retaliatory measures by its trading partners. then, lapse in the face of protectionist domestic political atmospheric pressures could be highly costly. As a result, binding even the consideration quo is extremely all important(p).Moreover, for negotiations that stretch over many years, the status quo in the final phase is often different from that at the outset of the negotiations, in part as a result of the negotiating process itself. Third, the GATS is prowd on the most-favored-nation (MFN) principle, which precludes discrimination among impertinent countries. under the MFN responsibleness of the GATS, a WTO member must assent to services and INTRODUCTION 3 service suppliers of any other member interposition no less favorable than the give-and-take it provides to like services and service suppliers of the most favored irrelevant nation. 9 The reach of the MFN indebtedness is very broad ecause it applies to all measures bear upon trade in services that are cover by the GATS, not just those for which a member has make particular(prenominal) commitments to liberalization. 10 Although the GATS does allow members to enter into economic integration agreements much(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) as the Treaty establishing the European Community (EC Treaty)11 and the northern American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)without extending the benefits of the agreements to all WTO members, it establishes stringent criteria for an agreement to incline for this exception. 12 If a WTO member undertakes liberalizing measures in connection with services obligations in an agreement that does not meet the criteria, it must admit the measures to all WTO members on an MFN basis. 3 Fourth, the GATS negotiating process can itself have a confirmative impact on domestic policy do, specially in rising market economies and other developing countries. Governments that participate in the negotiations are forced to account to their trading pa rtners for the barriers they impose and to explore the possibility of overcoming domestic political constraints to disregard or eliminate those barriers. A continuing challenge for the trading partners is to use the GATS negotiating process to provide support for and to predominate political and market forces that are creating pressures for liberalization at heart a host country. In this regard, a countrys readying for reform is critical. Thus, the outcome of the GATS process depends to a great extent on factors beyond its panorama.The next chapter of this study presents a brief discussion of the inter study readiness of financial services and their reporting by the GATS. The third chapter provides a framework for analyzing the role of the GATS and the WTO in liberalization and regulation of the financial sector. The fourth chapter focuses on the barriers to case treatment and market access that need to be addressed in the financial services negotiations in the Doha round. The ordinal chapter examines nondiscriminatory structural barriers and identifies legitimate(prenominal) areas of domestic structural reform that could usefully be dealt with in the GATS negotiations. The final chapter presents the conclusions of this study. 2 International Trade in Financial Services QThe financial sector is a critical broker of a nations thriftiness It not single contributes subscribe toly to product and employment but alike provides an ingrained infrastructure for the functioning of the entire economy. The financial system serves as a melody through with(predicate) which savings can be mobilized and use to finance investiture and, at the same time, facilitates sanctioned proceeding necessary for infixed and external trade. It as well as helps to manage risks and reduce so-called information asymmetries between providers and users of finances. 1 For these reasons, a sound and in force(p) financial system is imperative for economic harvest-feast and development. A sound financial system as well as increases the resiliency of a nations economy, thereby helping it to agree external shocks much(prenominal) as movements in exchange rates or a major(ip) increase in global interest rates.International trade in financial services together with enhanced prudential regulation and supervision and other prefatory structural reformscan play an important role in helping countries build financial systems that are to a greater extent competitive and efficient, and therefore more(prenominal) stable. Financial services trade can enhance crown market efficiency improve the quality, availability, and price of financial services stimulate intromission through the dissemination of new technologies, know-how, and skills and promote the use of foreignistic good practices in areas much(prenominal) as accounting, risk prudence, and revelation of financial information. 2 The rapid growth of trade in financial services in recent years re flects a combination of economic, scientific, and regulatory factors. These embarrass new and expanding markets in developing and transition economies, technological advances, and progress in trim back or eliminating a variety of host-country barriers (see chapter 3). 4 INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN FINANCIAL SERVICES 5 Trade in services, as situated in the GATS, allow ins services provided across borders and through irrelevant send out enthronisation. The cross-border provision of servicesfor theoretical account, the provision of financial services from an office located in one country to residents of other(prenominal) country is broadly analogous to trade in goods. 4 By contrast, outside(prenominal) direct investing involves the establishment of a commercial front line, such as a stage or supplemental, within a host country. 5 The GATS approach of defining international trade to nclude services provided to host-country clients through the establishment and subprogram of a commercial presence differs from the approach utilize for balance-of- wagess purposes, in which once a local anaesthetic branch or underling has been established, the services it provides to host-country customers are treated as domestic. 6 In this study, the term financial services refers to financial services other than indemnification policy, which is the subject of another study in this series. 7 Although the GATS definition of financial services encompasses two insurance and insurance-related services and banking and other financial services (excluding insurance),8 they have been negotiated and listed in the financial services schedules as separate subsectors. 9 These subsectors are, however, closely linked.Many of the major commercial and enthronement banks run internationally are part of financial conglomerates that also implicate firms engaged in insurance underwriting, and banks often engage directly in insurance brokerage activities. Moreover, the development of new types of products and instruments is blurring the banknotes between financial subsectors. Major financial firms now provide a wide range of financial services to customers in other countries. These include commercial banking activities such as lending and deposit-taking coronation banking activities, such as underwriting securities and advising on mergers and acquisitions trading activities, that is, brokering and transaction in securities and other financial instruments and asset-management activities, including management of mutual funds and pension funds.Other financial services provided internationally include financial information and data processing services enthronement advisory services payment and money transmission services, including credit separate settlement and clearing for financial assets and financial leasing. 6 THE majuscule of Qatar ROUND AND FINANCIAL SERVICES NEGOTIATIONS Many financial services provided internationally are wholesale in temper that is, they are provided to sophisticated customers such as corporations and institutions, other financial services firms, and wealthy individuals. 10 Both conflicting direct investment and cross-border bring home the bacon are important means of providing wholesale financial services.In the banking sector, when wholesale services are provided through establishment of a commercial presence, direct branches of the contrary bankif permitted by host-country regulationare comm scarce a more efficient form of organization than subsidiaries. inappropriate subsidiaries, branches are not one after another co-ordinated in the host country and operate utilise the firms unify worldwide heavy(p) (but see chapter 4 regarding lending limits based on branch capital-equivalency requirements). E-Finance Technological advances have long had a major impact on the fill of wholesale financial activities. Business-to-business electronic exertions within the financial sector have been apply for more than two decades, both domestically and internationally.Financial firms have also provided online services to nonfinancial firms over closed trademarked lucres for a number of years. Widespread access to the open network technology of the net, however, offers a whole new range of possibilities to provide services to a much broader base of customers at substantially lower costs. As a result, online services provided to wholesale customersboth within and across national bordersare growing rapidly. This growth includes not only traditional financial services but also new types of services designed to facilitate business-to-business e-commerce activities. 11 The same technological and cost-saving possibilities exist for the provision of electronic banking and other financial services to sell customers.Within any(prenominal) countries, the provision of some types of financial services over the Internet and through web-enabled technologies, such as mobile telephony, is expandin g dramatically. Prominent casefuls include discount brokerage and mutual funds in the United States, and banking services in Finland, Norway, and Sweden. 12 The cross-border provision of INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN FINANCIAL SERVICES 7 financial services to retail customers over the Internet, however, is politic in its infancy. In customary, the international provision of retail financial services still takes place primarily through locally incorporated subsidiaries. 13 Indeed, a number of banks are now exploitation their host-country subsidiaries as a base from which to provide electronic banking services to host-country retail customers.The lack of widespread development of cross-border retail banking and other financial servicesthrough the Internet or more traditional methodsreflects host-country regulatory requirements aimed at ensuring enough consumer protection, consumer preferences, and tax considerations. nearly countries materially require the establishment of a commercia l presence to provide retail financial services. correct when regulatory requirements for cross-border services involve nondiscriminatory application of host-country prudential standards, firms operating on a global basis may have surdy meeting a multitude of different national requirements. Perhaps even more important, consumers may prefer transaction with a local commercial presence, particularly because redress against a local establishment is ordinarily readily available through the domestic court-ordered system.In addition, in a number of countries, consumers peck more favorable tax treatment on financial products that are provided through locally incorporated entities. 14 Modes of Supply In an effort to include all of the ways in which services are provided internationally, the GATS defines trade in services in terms of four so-called modes of supply. Mode 1 and mode 2 cover services provided across borders for financial services, the transparention between these two mo des is not ever so clear. Mode 3 covers services provided through establishment of a commercial presencethat is, through foreign direct investment, a term that is not utilize in the GATS.Mode 4 covers services provided through the short-lived presence of vivid persons, which includes nonlocal employees of a foreign service provider. The GATS uses modes of supply not only to define the scope of its coverage but also as the basis for particular(prenominal) commitments to liberalization that WTO members undertake. 8 THE capital of Qatar ROUND AND FINANCIAL SERVICES NEGOTIATIONS Services Provided across Borders. In this study, the term cross-border services is used broadly without fireing to assign a geographic location to the transaction. Thus, this study does not attempt to determine whether a transaction takes place in the country of the service provider or in the country of the customer.For example, a cross-border financial services transaction could be carried out in a number of different ways (a) a deterrent example of, say, a foreign bank skill yell the country of the customer to arrange a loan (b) the customer skill travel abroad to visit the office of the foreign bank or (c) the transaction cleverness take place via telephone, facsimile machine , or, increasingly, the Internet, which, in this context, is barely another technological means of delivering the service. 15 The GATS, however, branches between services provided to nonresidents from the country of the service supplier (mode 1 or crossborder supply) and services provided in the country of the service supplier (mode 2 or consumption abroad). Usuallybut as currently defined by the GATS, not necessarilymode 2 involves corporal movement of the consumer, such as the movement that occurs in tourism. 6 For financial services, however, the line dividing these two modes of supply is not perpetually clear, especially in the case of example (c) in the previous paragraph. Indeed, because financ ial services are intangible, assigning a geographic site to their provision across borders is laborious and often arbitrary and will belong more so as the importance of e-finance increases. From a regulatory perspective, a major issue is whether, and to what extent, the rules of the host countrythat is, the country of the customerare applied to the cross-border transaction. 17 Suppose, for example, that employees of a foreign bank visit the host country to arrange cross-border loans.Even when the host country does not have a regulatory framework in place for cross-border banking services, host-country bank regulators sometimes look at factors, such as the frequency and period of visits and the permanence of the host-country infrastructure for the visiting employees, to determine whether, for regulatory purposes, the cross-border activity rises to the level of a host-country office. 18 Or suppose that a foreign broker-dealer solicits host-country customers to purchase securities. Securities regulators often use solicitation in addition to the actual conduct of business with domestic residentsas INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN FINANCIAL SERVICES 9 criterion for find out whether the foreign firm is subject to hostcountry broker-dealer accommodation requirements. 19 In response to the increasing use of the Internet by the securities industry, a number of regulators also examine factors such as whether a web site is being used to target host-country customers (see chapter 4). 20 Besides regulatory jurisdiction, another important jurisdictional issue arises in the casing of a dispute here the school principal is which countrys courts have jurisdiction to try the case and which countrys laws apply. 21 Foreign Direct Investment. The comprehension of foreign direct investment in the GATS reflects its importance as a way of providing services internationally. 2 By contrast, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) does not cover foreign direct investment for go ods, there is only a comparatively narrow agreement, negotiated in the Uruguay Round, on trade-related investment measures (TRIMs). 23 Although the GATS includes establishment of a commercial presence as a mode of supply, it does not have a separate framework for investment like that of the NAFTA or the widely used bilateral investment treaties (BITs). 24 These agreements cover portfolio investment as well as direct investment in both goods and services. Moreover, unlike the GATS, they include provisions to ensure the protection of investmentsspecific rules governing expropriation and compensation, for exampleand also provide for arbitration of disputes between secluded investors and host-country governments. Presence of Natural Persons.The fourth mode of supply in the GATS, the temporary presence of natural persons, includes the temporary presence in the host country of employees of firms providing services across borders or through a commercial presence. For example, for financia l services, this mode of supply covers the presence of nonlocal staff of a host-country branch or underling of a foreign financial firm as well as agents of the firm visiting the host country to facilitate the provision of cross-border services. 25 Although the presence of natural persons is listed as a mode of supply in the GATS, and members can negotiate sectorspecific commitments, countries usually make commitments for the temporary presence of natural persons as horizontal commitments that 10 THE DOHA ROUND AND FINANCIAL SERVICES NEGOTIATIONS apply to all services sectors. 6 For the financial services sector, however, most countries that belong to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) have incorporated into their schedules a set of commitments allowing the temporary entree of senior managerial personnel and certain types of specialists in association with the establishment of a commercial presence. 27 3 Liberalization and Regulation Q Policymakers, p articularly in emerging market economies, are increasingly recognizing that opening markets to foreign financial firms can benefit both consumers of financial services and the domestic economy as a whole. As noted in chapter 2, the presence of foreign firms can create more competitive and efficient markets for financial services, thereby supporting(a) economic growth and development and lend to a more resilient domestic financial system.At the same time, however, ensuring adequate prudential regulation and supervision of financial firms and markets, together with other fundamental domestic structural reforms, is indwelling to obtain the maximum benefits of liberalization while minimizing the risks. Basic structural reforms include increasing hydrofoil and accountability in both the private and public sectors introducing effective risk management techniques and developing the institutional infrastructure, such as insolvency laws and appropriate juridic procedures. Because measures to promote competitive markets and to strengthen domestic financial systems are complementary and mutually reinforcing, the relationship between financial sector liberalization and regulation has two distinct dimensions. On the one hand, liberalization requires reducing or removing anticompetitive regulations that pose supernumerary barriers to trade in services. On the other hand, liberalization requires increasing the strength and quality of certain regulations and, in some areas, introducing new regulations. Thus the process of liberalization involves, inter alia, attain a consensus on where to draw the line between regulations that are simply anticompetitive barriers to tradeand should therefore be eliminatedand regulations that serve legitimate purposes. For financial services, the GATS contains a prudential carve-out for domestic regulation. 2 In the GATS, the term prudential is used broadly 11 12 THE DOHA ROUND AND FINANCIAL SERVICES NEGOTIATIONS o encompass not only measu res to promote the integrity and stability of the financial system (as the term has traditionally been used in banking regulation) but also measures designed to protect consumers of financial services. The prudential carve-out, discussed later in this chapter, is designed to ensure that any obligations undertaken or commitments made in the GATS will not interfere with the ability of national authorities to exercise their responsibilities for prudential regulation and supervision. Whether a particular measure is prudential or simply being used to avoid a countrys obligations and commitments under the GATS is, however, an issue that could be brought forwards a WTO dispute settlement panel. every last(predicate) countries impose certain rules that are intelligibly prudential.Even if a measure is prudential, however, it may create a barrier to trade in financial services. This could occur because a host country imposes excess prudential requirements on foreign financial firms simili tude their domestic counterparts. such barriers could also be created simply because prudential rules differ among countriesthat is, even if each host country applies the same rules to foreign and domestic firms, financial services firms operating on a global basis often find it burdensome to honour with a multitude of different national prudential rules. A critical call into question is whether such barriers could be addressed without jeopardizing prudential goals.Specifically, in what areas and under what conditions might financial services regulators be able and instinctive to recognize each others regulations and supervisory practices as being as effective as their own? The GATS is bailable with respect to such recognition arrangements. However, as will be explained in chapters 4 and 5, the WTO is not the appropriate forum for financial services regulators to negotiate recognition of prudential measures. Three Pillars of Liberalization International contestability of market s refers to the world of markets that are competitive and efficient on a global basisa goal that can be achieved by removing all types of barriers to foreign participation in hostcountry markets. International contestability is, in effect, based on three pillars of liberalization (1) national treatment and market access (2) the LIBERALIZATION AND linguistic rule 13 removal of nondiscriminatory structural barriers, that is, domestic structural reform and (3) exemption of capital movements. For financial services, the GATS has so far dealt primarily with the first pillar. An important question for the Doha round is how far the negotiations should extend into the second pillar. The GATS deals with the third pillar only insofar as it affects countries specific commitments to change trade in services in general, liberalization of capital movements is a matter of concern for the IMF 4 . National Treatment and Market Access. The first pillar of international contestability of markets is liberalization aimed at opening markets to foreign services and service suppliers and ensuring that they enrapture substantially the same treatment as their domestic counterparts. much(prenominal) liberalization requires reducing or removing barriers that know apart against foreign services and service suppliers with regard to entry and operation in a host-country market. A host country might, for example, severalize against foreign financial firms by refusing to diffuse licenses for their branches or subsidiaries imposing limitations on their monomania position in domestic firms or on their aggregate market serving or nullifying them from engaging in certain activities that are permissible for their domestic counterparts.First-pillar liberalization also requires removing various quantitative limitations on the overall provision of services in a host-country market. Although these barriers may not, on their face, be overtly discriminatory, they are typically used to block entry by foreign services and service suppliers. A country might, for example, limit the number of service suppliers in a particular market by restricting the number of new licenses that may be issued or by relying on an economic postulate test, which involves an assessment of needs in the market by host-country authorities. 6 Because these measures have the effect of imposing some type of quantitative limitation on foreign entry, they are similar to the more overtly discriminatory barriers.To deal with these first-pillar barriers, the GATS uses the principles of national treatment and market access. expression seventeen (National Treatment) relies on a generally accredited definition of national treatmentthat is, it 14 THE DOHA ROUND AND FINANCIAL SERVICES NEGOTIATIONS requires a host country to treat foreign services and service suppliers no less favorably than like domestic services and service suppliers. 7 Barriers to entry or operation that discriminate against foreign serv ices or service suppliers vis-a-vis their domestic counterparts would therefore be uneven with national treatment. The GATS does not attempt to define market access.Instead, hold sixteen (Market Access) provides a list of restrictive measures, primarily quantitative, that are typically used by host countries to deny entry to foreign services or service suppliers. A country that does not maintain any of these measures is regarded as providing full market access. 8 The list includes seemingly nondiscriminatory quantitative barriers to entry that apply to both domestic and foreign firms, such as limitationsin the form of quantitative quotas or economic needs testson the number of service suppliers or their extreme assets. It also includes quantitative barriers to entry that are clearly discriminatory and thus are also uneven with national treatment, such as limitations on foreign ownership interests in domestic firms.As a result, some overlap exists in the national treatment and m arket access provisions of the GATSthat is, certain measures may be inconsistent with both national treatment and market access. 9 The list of measures in oblige XVI also includes restrictions on the type of legal entity through which services may be suppliedfor example, requiring establishment of a subsidiary as opposed to a branch. In the GATS, national treatment and market access are specific commitments as opposed to general obligations. 10 As a result, national treatment and market access do not apply across-the-board to all services sectors instead, they apply only to sectors, subsectors, or activities that a WTO member specifically lists in its schedule of commitments. 1 If a member is making only a partial(p) commitment to national treatment or market access within a listed sector, subsector, or activity, any limitations must be listed in its schedule. 12 The use of specific commitments for national treatment and market access instead of obligations applicable to all servi ces sectors is in some respects a structural weakness of the GATS. 13 Under a more ambitious approach, such as that used in the NAFTAs services and investment provisions, national treatment and market access would apply in each sector unless an exception was specifically listed in a countrys schedule of LIBERALIZATION AND REGULATION 15 commitments or one of the public policy exceptions, such as the national trade protection exception, applied. 14 Nondiscriminatory Structural Barriers.The second pillar of liberalization required for international contestability of markets is aimed at removing nonquantitative and nondiscriminatory structural barriers. Such barriers are associated with national measures that do not discriminate between domestic and foreign services and service suppliers. A secondpillar barrier could arise because a national measure is primarily anticompetitive or fosters anticompetitive behavior by private parties. In some cases, the barrier could be associated with t he lack or absence of domestic regulationfor example, the lack of an adequate domestic legal framework for insolvency. A second-pillar barrier could also arise because of differences in national rules, including prudential rules, that make it rugged to conduct operations on a global basis.Removing second-pillar barriers goes far beyond achieving national treatment and market access. Those principles ensure that foreign services and service suppliers can enter a host-country market as currently structured and enjoy equality of competitive opportunities vis-a-vis their domestic counterparts. By contrast, second-pillar liberalization represents an effort to create maximum potential competitive opportunities in a host-country market. Achieving this could require major domestic structural reform. This would necessarily involve some spot of convergence of national regulatory systems, either de facto or through negotiated harmonization. A longstanding U. S. rohibition on affiliations bet ween banks and insurance companies in the United States, which was repealed in 1999, created a major second-pillar barrier for many years. 15 Indeed, the European Union had found it difficult to accept that a European financial conglomerate that included both a bank and an insurance company could engage in only one of these businesses in the United States. Regardless of whether this nondiscriminatory restriction was primarily anticompetitive or could have been justified as a prudential measure, it nonetheless naturalized a barrier to trade in financial services. Significant second-pillar barriers are often associated with national regulatory regimes for asset-management services. 16 These include 6 THE DOHA ROUND AND FINANCIAL SERVICES NEGOTIATIONS across-the-board prohibitions on relegating of functions, such as portfolio management and administrative operations, by the host-country office to a foreign affiliate extremely strict asset-allocation requirements for a domestic mutual fund or pension fund and rules that prohibit such funds from investing in foreign securities. 17 While asset management activities raise legitimate prudential concerns about ensuring adequate protection of hostcountry customers, these types of measures often serve primarily to restrict contest, particularly contest from foreign firms (see chapter 5).Nondiscriminatory structural barriers to trade in financial services are not limited to financial sector regulation. Barriers in other areas that are particularly important for the effective functioning of the financial services sector, such as lack of adequate frameworks for corporate governance or insolvency, are part of the international work on strengthening domestic financial systems, which is discussed later in this chapter. Ineffective or devoid competition policy regimes, which could foster anticompetitive behavior by private parties, can also create major second-pillar barriers. Differences in national tax systems are yet an other source of second-pillar barriers.Discriminatory treatment of foreign firms under national tax or competition rules, however, would be a first-pillar barrier. 18 Second-pillar barriers can also arise from a countrys administrative proceduresin particular, a lack of regulatory transparency and procedural fairness. For example, a country might fail to publish all of its laws, regulations, and administrative decisions administer them in an impartial manner establish a meaningful procedure for interested parties to comment on proposed regulations act on applications for licenses within a reasonable period of time or provide a mechanism for independent review of administrative decisions.Because regulatory transparency and procedural fairness can be extremely effective in ensuring that commitments to market access and national treatment are fully implemented, they even out an important underpinning of first-pillar liberalization. The European Unions single-market program represent s the most far-reaching effort to date to absent nondiscriminatory structural barriers among a throng of nations. Predicated on political agreement on goals for economic liberalization, that effort is being carried out in the context of LIBERALIZATION AND REGULATION 17 the unique supranational legislative, judicial, and administrative structure of the European Community. 9 Even within the European Union, however, important nondiscriminatory structural barriers to trade in financial services among the member states are still in place (see chapter 5). The GATS addresses certain types of second-pillar barriers. Article terzetto (Transparency) imposes a general transparency obligation on WTO members to publish all measures of general application that are relevant to trade in services. 20 Article VI (Domestic Regulation) addresses, in fairly general terms, barriers created by domestic regulations. It requires countries to apply such regulations in a reasonable, objective and impartial manner to avoid undermining commitments to market access and national treatment. 1 Moreover, countries must have appropriate legal procedures to review administrative decisions affecting trade in services. 22 Article VI also mandates further work to develop disciplines to ensure that licensing requirements or proficient standards do not constitute unnecessary barriers to trade in services. Pending the consummation of this work, countries must refrain from adopting licensing rules or technical standards that are so burdensome, restrictive of trade, or lacking in transparency that they undermine the benefits that could reasonably be expected from their commitments to national treatment and market access. 23 The GATS deals with additional second-pillar barriers for individual sectors in members schedules of commitments.The most far-reaching example is in basic telecommunications, where a substantial majority of the countries that have made commitments to national treatment and marke t access in that sector have incorporated into their schedules using the additional commitments columna reference paper setting forth procompetitive regulatory principles. 24 Designed for a sector where dominant suppliers often control essential host-country facilities, these principles seek to ensure that a countrys national treatment and market access commitments will not be undermined. Countries committing to the principles undertake, among other things, to maintain measures to ensure network interconnection on nondiscriminatory terms and to check certain anticompetitive practices. 25 In the financial services sector, most OECD countries addressed nondiscriminatory structural barriers in their 1997 schedules of commitments 18 THE DOHA ROUND AND FINANCIAL SERVICES NEGOTIATIONS imply by making a general best efforts commitment to remove or eliminate any significant adverse effectuate of such barriers. 26 In addition, the United States and the European Union used the additional c ommitments column of their schedules to make best efforts commitments to remove specified nondiscriminatory barriers. For example, the U. S. administration committed to try to work with the Congress to remove Glass-Steagall dissemble restrictions, a goal that was subsequently accomplished, while the European Union pledged that its member states would try to process applications for licenses for banking and insurance subsidiaries within specified periods of time.Japan, under great pressure from its trading partners, went further and made binding commitments regarding removal of certain second-pillar barriersincluding restrictions on asset-management services and lack of regulatory transparency and limitations on lines of business in insurancethat were covered in its bilateral financial services agreements with the United States (see chapters 4 and 5). Freedom of Capital Movements. The third pillar of liberalization involves achieving freedom of capital movements across national bord ers. Such movements comprise international capital legal proceedingthat is, the creation, transfer of ownership, or liquidation of capital assets, including financial assetsand the payments and transfers associated with such minutes. 27 Restrictions on international capital movements are usually imposed on the underlying legal proceeding as opposed to the related payments and transfers. 8 For example, if a country wished to restrict foreign direct investment in the banking sector, it could prohibit foreign financial firms from acquiring significant ownership interests in host-country banks it would be grotesque to try to achieve this result by permitting the acquisition of the ownership interests while using exchange controls to block payment for them. 29 Although the free movement of capital plays a critical role in allowing efficient allocation of resources on a global basis, the Asian financial crisis of 199798 revived a long-standing controversy over the rightness and effectiveness of capital controls, particularly on short-term flows. 0 Nevertheless, all parties to the debate agree that capital controls can neer be a substitute for sound macroeconomic policies and fundamental reforms of domestic financial and legal structures. Indeed, the Asian crisis itself emphasized that weaknesses in domestic financial systems can create significant vulnerabilities LIBERALIZATION AND REGULATION 19 as capital movements are liberalized. At present, conventional wisdom holds that, although pain in the neck of new capital controls should, in general, be avoided, the imposition of limited, temporary capital controls to deal with gigantic temporary inflows or outflows of short-term debt might be useful in some cases. 1 Moreover, it is now widely acknowledge that removal of existing controls must be carried out with great care. Of particular importance are the pace and appropriate sequencing of liberalization of different types of capital flows and of liberaliz ation of capital movements vis-a-vis structural reforms to strengthen domestic financial systems. 32 Freedom of capital movements per se is not within the purview of the GATS international capital movements and international trade in financial services are, however, closely related. administration of a commercial presence in a host country by a foreign service supplier involves both trade in services under the GATS and international capital proceeding.For example, a commitment in the GATS to liberalize financial services trade by allowing foreign financial firms to establish wholly owned subsidiaries is essentially a commitment to allow foreign direct investment that involves the acquisition of 100 percent of the shares of existing or de novo hostcountry financial firms. 33 In theory it is possible that, once established, the subsidiary could conduct its ongoing activities without engaging in additional international capital transactions however, its activities would need to be lim ited to transactions with host-country residents involving domestic financial assets. 34 Establishment and operation of branches, which are not separately incorporated in the host country, well-nigh always involve international capital transactions between the banks head office and the branch. 5 These transactions include both foreign direct investment and portfolio investment. 36 For branches conducting a wholesale business, ongoing activities would typically also involve international capital transactions with independent parties. For cross-border financial services, international capital transactions are typically either full to, or closely associated with, the provision of the service. For example, international capital transactions are an entire part of accepting deposits from or making loans to nonresidents. In addition, international capital transactions are usually, although not necessarily, associated 20 THE DOHA ROUND AND FINANCIAL SERVICES NEGOTIATIONS ith financial s ervices such as securities trading or asset management on behalf of a customer residing in another country. 37 By contrast, certain crossborder financial services, such as investment advisory services and financial information services, can be provided without an associated international capital transaction. The avail of investment advice might be limited, however, if the customer were prohibited from investing in foreign assets. In general, it is difficult to realize fully the benefits of liberalization of trade in financial services without freedom of capital movements. Financial services trade absolutely requires, however, the liberalization of only those capital movements that are necessary for the trade transaction to occur.In recognition of this relationship, Article XI of the GATS (Payments and Transfers) prohibits WTO members from imposing restrictions on capital transactions or associated payments and transfers that would be inconsistent with their specific commitments to liberalization of trade in services. 38 A footnote to Article XVI (Market Access) provides greater detailnamely, a country that has made a specific commitment to market access must allow (a) capital movements that are essential for the provision of a service in mode 1 (cross-border supply) and (b) inward capital movements that are related to a service supplied through establishment of a commercial presence. 39 The bottom line is that if a country makes a commitment to liberalize trade with respect to a particular financial service in the GATS, it is also making a commitment to liberalize most capital movements associated with the trade liberalization commitment.The country is not, however, making an across-the-board commitment to freedom of capital movements. The GATS provisions dealing with capital movements, like GATS specific commitments to liberalize trade in services, are subject to a balance-of-payments safeguard. 40 Both the capital movements and balance-of-payments safeguard provisions of the GATS refer to and are consistent with the IMFs responsibilities in these areas. 41 Strengthening Domestic Financial Systems The financial services sector has an elaborate and intensively used framework of international fora that are used, both separately and in combination, LIBERALIZATION AND REGULATION 21 o address overall financial and regulatory policy issues to promote cooperation and coordination among supervisors to set voluntary but widely accepted international minimum standards and codes of good practices and, most recently, to provide direction of domestic financial systems. This surveillance includes supervise and helping to build institutional subject matter for implementation of the international standards and codes. The international fora dealing with these issues include the Group of Seven (G-7), the Group of Ten (G-10), the Group of Twenty (G-20), the Financial Stability Forum, the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision (Basel Committee), and th e International Organization of Securities Commissions (IOSCO), as well as the IMF and the World Bank. 2 The international framework for the financial services sector, which has been constructed over the past quarter century and is still evolving, is a response to two major factors the internationalization of banking and other financial activities and the special characteristics of the financial sector, especially the phenomenon of general risk. Because of systemic risk, problems with one financial firm can be transmitted to unrelated financial firms, both within and beyond a single country. For example, a chain chemical reaction of problems could be triggered through imitative runs on banks as depositors lose confidence in a banking system, through default on domestic or international interbank obligations, or through domestic or international payment systems.Problems in a countrys financial sector can also affect the real economy, both domestically and internationally, through d eclines in product and shifts in trade flows. In addition, the earth of global financial firms, with activities falling within many different national jurisdictions, requires cooperation and coordination among home- and host-country authorities to prevent gaps in supervision. Increasingly, these global firms are financial conglomerates, which means that supervisory cooperation and coordination are necessary across financial subsectors as well as national borders. For these reasons, countries have a stake in the quality of each others regulation and supervision of the financial sector and also in ensuring cooperation and coordination among supervisors.In this regard it is useful to distinguish between prudential regulation, which includes, for example, capital and other requirements designed to ensure the safety and 22 THE DOHA ROUND AND FINANCIAL SERVICES NEGOTIATIONS soundness of financial institutions, and supervision, which is aimed at making certain that financial firms adhere to such requirements. The importance of strong, effective supervision cannot be overemphasized without it, the best prudential rules can be meaningless in practice. The extent to which both experience and good judgment are required for such supervision also needs to be emphasized. Indeed, the role and nature of supervision make it particularly difficult for supervisory authorities to reach recognition agreements based on the harmonization of prudential rules (see chapter 5).While regulation and supervision must be strong and effective, a further branch is that a poorly designed regulatory systemfor example, an excessively generous deposit-insurance shunningcan create an unacceptable degree of moral hazard that is, it may throw out excessive risk-taking by regulated firms. Accordingly, national regulatory and supervisory systems must be designed to complement and support, but not to substitute for, market discipline. Thus, achieving widespread transparency in both the public and p rivate sectors, including accurate and timely disclosure of financial information, is critical